Reconstruction:Proto-Sino-Tibetan/kaʔ

• Proto-Sino-Tibetan: *b-kɑ-n (Coblin, 1986)
  • Proto-Tibeto-Burman: *b-ka-(n/m/ŋ) (Matisoff, STEDT); *b-ka-n (Matisoff, 2003; Mortensen, 2012); *ka (Benedict, 1972; Weidert, 1987; LaPolla, 1987); *ka (*B) (Coblin, 1986); *kɑ (Chou, 1972)

Derivative: Proto-Sino-Tibetan *kak (“difficult, hard”).

Compare Proto-Tai *Ĉ.qɤmᴬ (“bitter”) (Thai ขม (kǒm), Lao ຂົມ (khom)); also compare: Thai ขื่น (kʉ̀ʉn), Lao ຂື່ນ (khư̄n, “bitter, astringent, ascerbic”).

*kaʔ

1. bitter

• Old Chinese: 苦 /*kʰˤaʔ/ (B-S), /*kʰaːʔ/ (ZS) ("bitter; a bitter plant"); /*kʰˤa-s/ (B-S, unlisted), /*kʰaːs/ (ZS) ("difficult, hardship")
  • Middle Chinese: 苦 (kʰuoX, kʰuoH/)

    → Japanese: 苦 (く, ​ku)
    Korean: 고 (苦, go)
    Vietnamese: khổ (苦)

    → Vietnamese: khó (“hard, difficult; delicate”)

    • Modern Mandarin
      • Beijing: 苦 (kǔ, /kʰu²¹⁴/)
• Bodish
  • Tibetic
    • Tibetan: ཁ་བ (kha ba, “bitter”)
• Proto-Kuki-Chin: *khaa
  • Northern
    • Zou: khe
• Naic
  • Proto-Naish: *kʰa
    • Naxi: ka (/⁠kʰɑ³³⁠/)
    • Narua: kha (/⁠qʰɑ˥⁠/)
    • Laze: [Term?] (/⁠kʰɑ˧⁠/)
• Nungish:
  • Rawang: ka (“bitter”)
  • Trung/Drung/Dulong: ka (“bitter”)
• Proto-Bodo-Garo: *kha²
  • Garo: kaa (“bitter”)
  • Kokborok: bwkha
  • Bodo (India): bi-kraʔ
  • Deori: ci-kā²
• Lolo-Burmese
  • Burmish
    • Achang: khoh
    • Burmese: ခါး (hka:, “bitter”)
  • Loloish
    • Northern Loloish
      • Yi (Liangshan): ꈌ (ke, “bitter”)
      • Katso: ka³³
    • Central Loloish
      • Lisu (Northern): ꓘꓪꓽ (kʰwɑ̀, “bitter, too salty”)
      • Lolopo: kar (“bitter”)
    • Southeastern Loloish
      • Phuza: ka⁵⁵
• Proto-Karen: *khaᴮ (Luangthongkum, 2013)
  • S'gaw Karen: ခၣ် (khà)
  • Western Pwo: ခၪ
  • Western Kayah: ꤋꤢꤧ꤬ (hkàe)

• *m-sin (“liver, heart, bile, bitter”)
• *m-ka (“mouth, opening, door”)
• *ka (“word, speech, language”)
• *tsa (“salt”)