Sri Dharmasokaraja I

Sri Dharmasokaraja I (Thai: ศรีธรรมโศกราชที่ 1) was a 12th-century monarch of mainland and peninsular Southeast Asia, known primarily from epigraphic and legendary sources. He is mentioned in the Dong Mè Nang Mưo’ng Inscription (K. 766), written in Pali, Khmer, and Thai,^[1] as well as in later Thai chronicles, notably the Legend of Nakhon Si Thammarat and the Legend of Phatthalung (ตำนานเมืองพัทลุง).^{[2]: 36–43} These sources associate him with the polities of Indaprasthanagara, Lavo, and Tambralinga, and portray him as a key figure in the political and religious reconfiguration of southern Thailand during the transitional period. He is traditionally credited with the refoundation of Nakhon Si Thammarat in 1077 and the establishment of a dynastic line that produced two successors bearing the same regnal title.^{[2]: 36–43}

The reign of Sri Dharmasokaraja I at Indaprasthanagara–Lavo came to an end in 1117 CE, when the principal center at Indaprasthanagara was severely affected by an epidemic, prompting his relocation southward and the refoundation of Nakhon Si Thammarat in Tambralinga, while Lavo was simultaneously taken over by the Angkorian monarch Sri Jayasinghavarman;^[2]: 39 his authority at Tambralinga appears to have continued until approximately 1157 CE, when his elder son, Sri Dharmasokaraja II, ascended the throne.^[2]: 41

The reign of Sri Dharmasokaraja I at Tambralinga, followed by those of his successors—Sri Dharmasokaraja II and Sri Dharmasokaraja III—was probably a period of Pagan suzerainty over Tambralinga, extending from the mid-11th century, after the Chola invasion in 1025/26, to the early 13th century,^{[3]: 89–90 [4]: 61} when the well-known Tambralinga ruler Chandrabhanu expanded his authority into Lanka.^[5]

Sri Dharmasokaraja I is first attested in the Dong Mè Nang Mưo’ng Inscription (K. 766), dated to 1167/68 CE, which refers to two monarchs sharing the same regnal title, explicitly stating that the earlier ruler had already died by the time of its composition.^[1] This earlier ruler is generally identified with Sri Dharmasokaraja I. According to the inscription, together with other local legends, he potentially ruled over a political sphere encompassing Indaprasthanagara–Lavo–Tambralinga, indicating a supra-regional authority linking the Chao Phraya basin with the Malay Peninsula.^{[2]: 36–43}

He is reported to have succeeded Kesariraja at Lavo, although neither the precise date of his accession nor the dynastic relationship between the two rulers is explicitly recorded. Thai historians have proposed that Sri Dharmasokaraja I may have maintained connections with Tai Yuan monarchs, particularly with a lineage associated with Vāsudeva, who is said to have established authority at Lavo in 861 CE.^[2]: 39  This hypothesis has been advanced as a tentative explanation for the relationship between Sri Dharmasokaraja I and his predecessor Kesariraja, the latter being described as of mixed Tai Yuan and Mon Chaliang origin.^{[6]: 17–8} While plausible, this interpretation remains conjectural due to the absence of direct epigraphic corroboration.

An alternative tradition is preserved in another recension of the Legend of Nakhon Si Thammarat, which asserts that Sri Dharmasokaraja I originated from Hanthawaddy and subsequently re-founded Nakhon Si Thammarat.^[7]: 28 When this tradition is examined within its broader geopolitical context, such an origin appears plausible. During the relevant period, Hanthawaddy was under the authority of the Pagan Kingdom,^[8]: 33 which expanded its influence southward to Tambralinga^{[3]: 89–90 [4]: 61} and is recorded in the Northern Chronicle as having launched incursions into the Menam Basin during the 11th to 12th centuries. Lavo, during the reign of Chandrachota (r. 1052–1069), is likewise recorded to have fallen under Pagan influence.^{[6]: 37–9 [9]: 18–9} This Hanthawaddy origin theory accords with the broader interpretations advanced by Gordon Luce and D.K. Wyatt, both of whom proposed that Tambralinga was under Pagan domination during the late 11th and 12th centuries, with Luce suggesting a period spanning approximately 1060–1200^[4]: 61 and Wyatt identifying Pagan control between 1130 and 1176.^{[3]: 89–90} These chronological frameworks coincide closely with the period during which Tambralinga is associated with the lineage of Sri Dharmasokaraja I, thereby lending further support to the plausibility of this tradition. Under Anawrahta (r. 1044–1077), Pagan territory is described as extending to the Angkorian frontier and, according to later accounts, culminating in the sack of Angkor.^[8]: 34

A second phase of Pagan expansion likely occurred in the 1080s. During this period, a Pagan noble named Kar Tayy is reported to have established authority over Mueang Uthong–Suphannaphum^[6]: 60 between 1081 and 1121.^{[10]: 43–5} The Northern Chronicle further records an invasion of Ayodhya in 1087, during the reign of Narai I, who successfully repelled the attack but died later that same year. Thereafter, Ayodhya entered a two-year period of internal power struggle, culminating in the accession of a noble of uncertain dynastic origin known as Phra Chao Luang.^{[6]: 40–2} In the same general timeframe, Surindraraja (r. 1062–1100), ruler of Xiū Luó Fēn, is recorded to have relocated his capital northward from Phraek Si Racha to Chai Nat.^[11]: 41 This second phase of expansion corresponds closely with the period in which Sri Dharmasokaraja I is attested in the Menam Basin, where his authority is recorded to have ended due to a severe epidemic in 1117.^[2]: 39 Within this historical framework, the tradition asserting his origin in Pagan-controlled Hanthawaddy gains greater credibility. If this interpretation is accepted, it follows that Indapraṣṭhanagara—ruled by Sri Dharmasokaraja I—should be located within the Menam Basin rather than in mainland Cambodia. Such a localization aligns with the Ayutthaya Testimonies, which place Indapraṣṭhanagara east of Sankhaburi in the Phraek Si Racha historical region.^{[11]: 4–5} Furthermore, Sri Dharmasokaraja II’s reclamation campaign in the Menam basin in 1157—aimed at recovering territories formerly held by his father, as attested in the Dong Mè Nang Mưo’ng Inscription (K. 766)—provides additional support for this hypothesis,^{[1][2]: 39–40} which is diverges from earlier assumptions by early Thai scholars who equated Indaprasthanagara with Angkor.^{[12]: 1–3} It also significantly reshapes the pre-Sukhothai historical narrative, particularly traditions stating that Sukhothai had formerly existed as a tributary polity under Indapraṣṭhanagara.^{[11]: 15–6}

Thai historiography commonly places the effective end of his reign around 1117 CE, coinciding with the expansion of the Mahidharapura dynasty under Sri Jayasinghavarman, widely identified with the Angkorian king Suryavarman II (r. 1113–1150). During this period, Lavo is thought to have fallen again under Angkorian domination.^[2]: 39 Following the death of Suryavarman II in 1150, Angkorian authority weakened, enabling Lavo to regain a measure of autonomy, as evidenced by its independent dispatch of a tributary mission to a royal court in 1155.^[13]: 19 It was during this phase that Sri Dharmasokaraja I’s son appears as one of the rulers exercising power in the region, suggesting continuity of the dynasty beyond Angkorian hegemony.^{[2]: 39–40}

No contemporary source records the exact year of Sri Dharmasokaraja I’s death. However, the Dong Mè Nang Mưo’ng Inscription implies that he had died before 1167/68 CE.^[1] The Legend of Phatthalung provides a clearer dynastic framework by explicitly identifying two rulers named Sri Dharmasokaraja as father and son, thereby confirming a hereditary succession,^[2]: 38 a conclusion further corroborated by a Tambralinga tributary mission dispatched to the Chinese court in 1168, which reports that the son of the preceding king had ascended the throne as the new ruler.^[2]: 40

Based on these sources, Sri Dharmasokaraja I is thought to have died around 1157 CE, the year traditionally assigned to the accession of his son as king of Tambralinga.^[2]: 41 He is credited with fathering two sons:^[a] Sri Dharmasokaraja II, also known as Chandrabhanu I and Sri Dharmasokaraja III, also known as Chandrabhanu II.^[b] These successors played significant roles in extending Tambralinga’s political and military influence in the later 12th and 13th centuries.

According to the Legend of Nakhon Si Thammarat, Sri Dharmasokaraja I originally ruled at Indaprasthanagara, but was forced to abandon the city due to a severe epidemic that caused economic collapse and population decline. He subsequently migrated southward and re-founded Nakhon Si Thammarat,^[2]: 37 which was devastated by a Chola invasion from Lanka in 1030 CE and probably became under Pagan control around the late 11th to early 12th century.^{[4]: 61 [3]: 90} Through his patronage of Buddhism, he is said to have maintained cordial religious relations with Lanka.

Some versions of the legend further assert that Sri Dharmasokaraja I and his younger brother, named Mala, originated from India.^[2]: 37 If accepted, this narrative would imply a south-to-north expansion of political influence into the Chao Phraya basin, including Lavo and Dong Mae Nang Mueang. However, this Indian-origin hypothesis is generally regarded as weak. The multilingual character of the Dong Mè Nang Mưo’ng Inscription—composed in Pali, Khmer, and Thai, rather than Sanskrit alone—strongly suggests a local or regional origin rooted in the Lavo–Indaprasthanagara cultural milieu.

An alternative interpretation proposes that the dynasty was indigenous to Nakhon Si Thammarat, rejecting both Indian and Lavo-centric origin theories. This view draws support from phonetic considerations and the Chinese tribute records dated to 1168 CE and aligns with the Legend of Phatthalung, which states that Sri Dharmasokaraja II departed to rule another city, implying an established local dynastic base in the peninsula rather than recent foreign origins.^{[2]: 39–40}