Solomon Linda

For the town named after him, see Pomeroy, South Africa.
Solomon Linda
OIG
Linda c. 1941
Born1909
Pomeroy, Colony of Natal
Died8 September 1962(1962-09-08) (aged 52–53)
Johannesburg, Transvaal, South Africa
EducationGordon Memorial School
Spouse
Regina Madiba
​
(m. 1949)​
Children8
Musical career
GenresIsicathamiya
InstrumentsVocals
Years activec. 1931–1959
LabelsGallo Record Company
Formerly ofThe Evening Birds

Solomon Popoli Linda (1909 – 8 September 1962), also known as Solomon Ntsele,[a] was a South African musician, singer, and performer. He composed "Mbube", a defining South African song that revamped the isicathamiya genre and spawned a distinct genre of choral music. "Mbube" would evolve into "The Lion Sleeps Tonight" when it was reimagined by the Tokens in 1961.

Life

Early life and career (1909–1939)

Solomon Popoli Linda was born near Pomeroy, on the labor reserve Msinga, Umzinyathi District Municipality in Ladysmith in Natal, where he was familiar with the traditions of amahubo and izingoma zomshado (wedding songs) music.[2][3] He attended the Gordon Memorial mission school, where he learned about Western musical culture, hymns, and participated in choir contests.[2][4]

In 1931, Linda, like many other young African men at that time, left his homestead to find menial work in Johannesburg, by then a sprawling gold-mining town with a great demand for cheap labour. He worked in the Mayi Mayi Furniture Shop on Small Street and sang in a choir known as the Evening Birds, managed by his uncles, Solomon and Amon Madondo, and which disbanded in 1933.[5]

Linda found employment at Johannesburg's Carlton Hotel and started a new group that retained the Evening Birds name. The members of the group were Solomon Linda (soprano), Gilbert Madondo (alto), Boy Sibiya (tenor), with Gideon Mkhize, Samuel Mlangeni, and Owen Sikhakhane as basses. They were all Linda's friends from Pomeroy.[6][2]

The group evolved from performances at weddings to choir competitions. Linda's musical popularity grew with the Evening Birds, who presented "a very cool urban act that wears pinstriped suits, bowler hats and dandy two-tone shoes".[7]

"Mbube"

Main article: The Lion Sleeps Tonight § Solomon Linda and "Mbube"

After Linda started working at the Gallo Record Company's Roodepoort plant as a record packer in 1939,[8] the Evening Birds were noticed by company talent scout Griffith Motsieloa.[9]

Italian immigrant Eric Gallo owned what at that time was sub-Saharan Africa's only recording studio. In 1939, while recording a number of songs in the studio, Linda improvised the song "Mbube".[2][b] "Mbube" was a major success for Linda and the Evening Birds, reportedly selling more than 100,000 copies in South Africa over nine years.[12] While the song proved a monumental success, Linda did not profit,[13] as he sold his rights to "Mbube" to Eric Gallo for ten shillings[14][c] just after the recording session.[16] Seeing that Linda could not read[17] and had no understanding of royalties,[18] a court would later deem this deal unfair.[19] Gallo also paid Linda the equivalent of $2 for the first run of a few hundred records.[20]

Later years: 1948–1962

In 1948, the Evening Birds disbanded,[21] and a year later Linda married Regina Madiba.[22] While raising a family he continued to perform. His song "Mbube" had made him well known in South Africa.[23]

In 1959, Linda collapsed onstage, which doctors ruled a result of kidney failure.[24] He died three years later aged 53.[25] At the time of his death, his bank account contained roughly $40 in today's money.[26][d] His family could not afford a tombstone.[29]

Musical analysis and impact

See also: Isicathamiya, Mbube (genre), and Music of South Africa

Linda is credited with a number of musical innovations that came to dominate the isicathamiya genre.[30] Instead of using one singer per voice part, the Evening Birds used a number of bass singers.[31] He introduced the falsetto main voice, which incorporated female vocal texture into male singing.[32] His group was the first known to use striped suits to indicate that they were urban sophisticates. At the same time, their bass singing retained some musical elements indicative of traditional choral music.[33]

The journalist Rian Malan comments on his music: "He has songs about work, songs about crime, songs about how banks rob you by giving you paper in exchange for real money, songs about how rudely the whites treat you when you go to get your pass stamped."[7] Linda's song "Yetulisigqoko" ("Take off your hat") is interpreted by Erlmann as a protest song against the British regime of class and racial oppression; the song recalls treatment by Pass Office officials and ends with the words "Sikhalela izwe lakithi" ("We mourn for our country"). Such expressions were an occasional feature of mbube songs.[34]

Legacy

"Wimoweh" and "The Lion Sleeps Tonight"

Main article: The Lion Sleeps Tonight § History

Years after "Mbube" found success in South Africa, Gallo sent some records to Decca Records in the United States, included in which was "Mbube".[35] Alan Lomax found them and sent them to the folk singer Pete Seeger of the Weavers.[36] "Mbube" intrigued Seeger,[36] and he transcribed it word for word,[37] although he misheard the chorus as wimoweh.[38] In December 1951,[39] the Weavers released a cover of "Mbube" named "Wimoweh", which, as Malan writes, "was faithful to the Zulu original in almost all respects save for the finger-popping rhythm."[40] Linda received no credit.[41] Some years later, the Tokens, a New York-based doo-wop group, decided to record their own version.[42] They solicited the help of George David Weiss, who gave the song English lyrics[43] and a modern feel,[33] making the final improvised notes ("a haunting skein of fifteen notes")[44] the new tune.[45] It was released in October 1961[46] as a B-side,[43] and Linda, again, received no credit.[47]

"The Lion Sleeps Tonight" surged to No. 1 in the US charts[48] and in numerous other countries.[49] Many covers of the song found similar success in the years to come.[50] In 1994, it featured in the Disney film The Lion King.[51] The film would gross nearly $1 billion[20] and produce many soundtrack CDs.[52] By the mid-2000s, "The Lion Sleeps Tonight" had been recorded by over 150 artists worldwide[53] and had a role in more than thirteen movies.[17]

Rediscovery

In spite of the song's immense fame, Linda's family had earned very little in royalties,[17] and Linda himself had been all but forgotten.[19] At the turn of the century, Linda's family was still desperately poor, living in "a tiny township house of three rooms, an outside toilet, and an asbestos roof without a ceiling."[54] Five of his eight children had died.[55] Due to this,[56] in 2000, the South African journalist Rian Malan penned an essay for Rolling Stone which shed light on the origins of "The Lion Sleeps Tonight".[57] He told the story of "Mbube", its eventual rise to success, and the struggles faced by Linda's daughters,[58] and concluded that "The Lion Sleeps Tonight" had earned some $15 million in royalties.[59] Two years later, fellow South African François Verster composed a documentary about Linda and "Mbube", A Lion's Trail.[60] Both Malan's essay and Verster's documentary greatly publicised Linda's history.[61]

The history of "The Lion Sleeps Tonight" and the plight of Linda’s daughters have been chronicled. Beyond Malan's essay and Vester's documentary,[62] they were covered in the 2019 Netflix film ReMastered: The Lion’s Share.[63] Moreover, Beyoncé's 2020 musical film Black Is King partially came into being after she learned of how Linda was not recognised for his contributions to "The Lion Sleeps Tonight". In the film, the original "Mbube" rather than the Tokens' version is used.[64] In 2022, Linda's hometown Pomeroy was renamed to Solomon Linda.[65]

Main article: The Lion Sleeps Tonight § Legal issues

Covers of "Mbube" have been plagued by disputes over songwriting credits and royalties since the 1950s. In fact, the journalists Simon Robinson and David Browne deem the song one of the most contentious in pop music.[66] Around 1951, Pete Seeger began demanding Linda receive his fair share of revenue from "Wimoweh",[67] but it was only until two decades later that The Richmond Organization (TRO), which owned the rights to "Mbube",[16] conceded some of the earnings to Linda's family. They also recognized the Weavers' cover as being based on "Mbube".[68] After the Tokens' cover became a global hit, TRO and George David Weiss' team locked horns in court.[69] Weiss' team would retain rights over "The Lion Sleeps Tonight", but they were ordered to send ten percent of performance royalties to Linda's family.[70][e]

In 2004, Linda's descendants sued Disney for $1.5 million for its use of "The Lion Sleeps Tonight" in The Lion King.[26][f][g] Their lawyer Owen Dean argued that, from 1991 to 2000, they received some $15,000 in royalties, while the song earned an estimated total of $15 million.[73] The case attracted global attention.[74] Before a trial could take place, however, the case was settled.[75] Abilene Music, which held the US copyright to "The Lion Sleeps Tonight",[76] agreed to pay the family a lump sum representing royalties earned from 1987 onward[17] and grant them a share of future income until 2017.[74] The family's lawyers expressed satisfaction at these concessions.[77] Furthermore, Linda received recognition for his work as well as a cowriting credit on "The Lion Sleeps Tonight".[74] Nonetheless, the song continued stirring up legal conflict.[78] Since the Linda family's settlement with Disney became void in 2017, they could not profit from the song's use in the 2019 film The Lion King.[74]

Partial discography

During his musical career, Solomon Linda recorded many songs (some of them unissued) in the Gallo Recording Studio. He was accompanied by his vocal group, The Evening Birds.

  • 1938: Makasani/Mfo Ka Linda
  • 1938: Ngqo Ngqongo Vula/Ngi Boni Sebeni
  • 1939: Ntombi Ngangiyeshela (recorded c. 1938)/Hamba Pepa Lami
  • 1939: Yetulisigqoko
  • 1939: Mbube/Ngi Hambile (recorded c. 1938)
  • 1939: Sangena Mama/Sohlangana
  • 1939: Sengiyofela Pesheya/Ziyekele Mama
  • 1940: Jerusalema (recorded c. 1940)/Basibizalonkizwe
  • 1940: Sigonde 'Mnambiti (recorded c. 1939)/Bhamporo
  • 1942: Ngazula Emagumeni (recorded c. 1941)/Gijima Mfana
  • 1942: Ndaba Zika Linda/Ngiyomutshel'Ubaba

References

Notes

  1. ^ Linda was his clan name.[1]
  2. ^ "Mbube" is Zulu for "lion,"[10] or "the lion."[11]
  3. ^ Ten shillings in 1939 is worth $70 in 2025 (a shilling then being a twentieth of a pound, and a pound being worth $140.97 in 2025, the latter value was halved and rounded down).[15]
  4. ^ Different figures are suggested. Sharon Lafraniere writes that Linda died with $22 in his account,[17] worth $35.08 in 2025,[27] but Simon Robinson denotes $25,[28] worth $42.54.[27]
  5. ^ Performance royalties are profits made whenever the song is broadcast.[71]
  6. ^ $1.5 million in 2004 are worth $2.57 million in 2025.[27]
  7. ^ BBC News gives the figure at $1.6 million, instead,[72] equating to $2.74 million in 2025.[27]

Citations

  1. ^ Gilmore 2000
  2. ^ a b c d Erlmann 2004, p. 271
  3. ^ Erlmann 1999, p. 204
  4. ^ Erlmann 1996, p. 60
  5. ^ Erlmann 1991, pp. 165–167
  6. ^ Erlmann 1996, p. 61
  7. ^ a b Malan 2012, p. 59
  8. ^ Coplan 2008, p. 159; Erlmann 1996, p. 61
  9. ^ Erlmann 1996, p. 61; Malan 2012, p. 60; Phillips 2023
  10. ^ Erlmann 2004, p. 271; Muller 2008, p. 5; Phillips 2023
  11. ^ Lafraniere 2006; Malan 2012, p. 61
  12. ^ Coplan 2008, p. 159; Malan 2012, p. 62; Muller 2008, p. 5
  13. ^ Malan 2012, p. 71; Robinson 2004; Wilberforce 2020
  14. ^ Connor 2018; Khumalo 2004
  15. ^ Nye
  16. ^ a b Malan 2012, p. 71
  17. ^ a b c d e Lafraniere 2006
  18. ^ Muller 2008, p. 6
  19. ^ a b Contreras 2006
  20. ^ a b Phillips 2023
  21. ^ Coplan 2008, p. 160
  22. ^ Malan 2012, p. 77
  23. ^ Malan 2012, p. 76
  24. ^ Malan 2012, p. 75
  25. ^ Lafraniere 2006; Malan 2012, p. 77; Robinson 2004
  26. ^ a b Lafraniere 2006; Robinson 2004
  27. ^ a b c d Webster 2025
  28. ^ Robinson 2004
  29. ^ Lafraniere 2006; Malan 2012, p. 58
  30. ^ Erlmann 2004, p. 271; Muller 2008, p. 102
  31. ^ Erlmann 1996, p. 66
  32. ^ Erlmann 1996, p. 65
  33. ^ a b Erlmann 1996, p. 67
  34. ^ Erlmann 1996, p. 70
  35. ^ Connor 2018; Muller 2008, p. 5
  36. ^ a b Malan 2012, p. 63
  37. ^ BBC 2006
  38. ^ Malan 2012, p. 63; Wilberforce 2020
  39. ^ Library of Congress Copyright Office 1952
  40. ^ Malan 2012, p. 64
  41. ^ Malan 2012, p. 73
  42. ^ Malan 2012, pp. 66–67
  43. ^ a b Malan 2012, p. 68
  44. ^ Malan 2012, p. 57
  45. ^ Lafraniere 2006; Malan 2012, pp. 61, 67
  46. ^ Billboard Music Week 1961, p. 32
  47. ^ Lewis 2019
  48. ^ Erlmann 1996, p. 68
  49. ^ Blair 2004; Lafraniere 2006
  50. ^ Malan 2012, p. 57
  51. ^ Connor 2018; Lewis 2019; Malan 2012, pp. 81–82
  52. ^ Connor 2018; Malan 2012, p. 82
  53. ^ BBC 2006; Lafraniere 2006; Vincent 2004
  54. ^ BBC 2003
  55. ^ Chanda 2004
  56. ^ Connor 2018
  57. ^ Lafraniere 2006; Wilberforce 2020
  58. ^ Connor 2018; Wilberforce 2020
  59. ^ Malan 2012, p. 69
  60. ^ Ovesen & Haupt 2011, p. 73
  61. ^ Muller 2008, p. 7
  62. ^ Ovesen & Haupt 2011, p. 73
  63. ^ Lewis 2019; Wilberforce 2020
  64. ^ Ngema 2020; Phillips 2023
  65. ^ Bambalele 2022
  66. ^ Browne 2019; Robinson 2004
  67. ^ Malan 2012, pp. 73–74
  68. ^ Citizen 2004; Toronto Star 2004
  69. ^ Malan 2012, p. 80; Ovesen & Haupt 2011, p. 75
  70. ^ Malan 2012, p. 81
  71. ^ Malan 2012, p. 79
  72. ^ BBC 2004b
  73. ^ BBC 2006; Lafraniere 2006; Vincent 2004
  74. ^ a b c d Browne 2019
  75. ^ Dean 2006, p. 10
  76. ^ BBC 2004a
  77. ^ Browne 2019; Lafraniere 2006
  78. ^ Wilberforce 2020

Bibliography

Books and academic papers

  • Ansell, Gwen (2005). Soweto Blues: Jazz, Popular Music, and Politics in South Africa. New York City, New York: Continuum International Publishing Group. ISBN 0-8264-1753-1.
  • Coplan, David B. (2008). In Township Tonight!: South Africa's Black City Music and Theatre. Chicago, Illinois: The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-11567-2.
  • Dean, Owen (April 2006). "The Return of the Lion" (PDF). WIPO Magazine. Geneva, Switzerland. Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 November 2023. Retrieved 28 September 2025.
  • Erlmann, Veit (1991). "Imbube: The Career of Solomon Linda". African Stars: Studies in Black South African Performance. Chicago, Illinois: The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-21724-8.
  • Erlmann, Veit (1996). "The History of Isicathamiya, 1891–1991". Nightsong: Performance, Power, and Practice in South Africa. Chicago, Illinois: The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-21721-3.
  • Erlmann, Veit (1999). Music, Modernity, and the Global Imagination: South Africa and the West. New York City, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-512367-0.
  • Erlmann, Veit (2004). "Fantasies of Home: The antinomies of modernity and the music of Ladysmith Black Mambazo". In Frith, Simon (ed.). Popular Music: Critical Concepts in Media and Cultural Studios. Vol. 4. New York City, New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-33270-2.
  • Malan, Rian (2012). "In the Jungle". The Lion Sleeps Tonight and Other Stories of Africa. New York City, New York: Grove Atlantic. ISBN 978-0-8021-1990-2.
  • Muller, Carol A. (2008). Focus: Music of South Africa (2 ed.). New York City, New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-96071-7.
  • Ovesen, Håvard; Haupt, Adam (October 2011). "Vindicating Capital: Heroes and Villains in A Lion's Trail". Ilha do Desterro (61): 73–107. doi:10.5007/2175-8026.2011n61p073.

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