Viśuddhaprabhā Dhāraṇī

The Viśuddhaprabhā Dhāraṇī (Dhāraṇī of Pure Radiance), also known by its full title Raśmi-vimala-viśuddhaprabhā-dhāraṇī (Dhāraṇī of the Pure Radiance of Immaculate Rays, Chinese: 無垢淨光大陀羅尼), is a Buddhist ritual text belonging to the dhāraṇī genre of protective and transformative formulas.[1] Originating from the broader Kalparāja (King of Rituals) corpus, this text is preserved in multiple versions and sutras within the Tibetan Kanjur and Chinese Buddhist canons. The dhāraṇī centers on the worship of Amitāyuṣ (the Buddha of Infinite Life), and its core function is the purification of karma, extension of lifespan, and assurance of rebirth in Sukhāvatī, the Western Pure Land.[1]

The Dhāraṇī became popular during the 8th century, and it quickly spread throughout East Asia due to the use of woodblock printing. The Great Dhāraṇī Sūtra, a Korean copy of the Raśmi-vimala-viśuddhaprabhā-dhāraṇī, is considered to be one of the oldest printed texts in the world.[2]

The Dhāraṇī

The text's transmission from India to East Asia illustrates the dynamics of medieval Buddhist exchange. It was translated into Chinese in 704 CE by the monk Mitrasena, who presented it at the court of Empress Wu Zetian of the Tang Dynasty. The Empress, seriously ill and seeking both healing and a favorable rebirth, became a key patron of the text, and many copies were made and ritually enshrined during her reign.[1]

The dhāraṇī saw another major wave of promotion in 8th-century Japan under Empress Kōken. Following a period of political struggle and depression, she commissioned the production of one million miniature wooden pagodas (Hyakuman-tō), each containing a printed scroll of the dhāraṇī, in a monumental act of merit-making that sought to secure her health, authority, and karmic destiny. These events cemented the text's reputation as an especially potent rite for those facing illness, old age, or political peril.[1]

Ritually, the Viśuddhaprabhā Dhāraṇī is structured as a complete system for the construction, consecration, and use of a stūpa or ritual pillar (yaṣṭi/dhvaja). The canonical Chinese version contains seven distinct dhāraṇīs, each with a specific liturgical function: (1) a root mantra for purification and life-extension; (2) a formula for sanctifying the central pillar (which absent in the Tibetan versions); (3) a dhāraṇī for repairing a damaged stūpa; (4) a sanctification verse linked to the bodhisattva Sarvanīvaraṇaviṣkambhin; (5) an invocation for worship at the consecrated site; (6) a concluding rite (visarjana) of farewell to the invoked deity; and (7) a reiterated great dhāraṇī. The ritual involves inscribing or printing the dhāraṇīs, placing them in the stūpa's hollow base or pillar, and performing recitations to activate their power, thereby transforming the monument into a permanently charged field of merit.[1]

The root dhāraṇī (or mūla-mantra) is the following:[1]

namo saptasaptatibhyaḥ ǀ samyak-sambuddha-koṭīnām ǀ pariśuddha-mānasa-vāk-citta-pratiṣṭhitānām ǀ

namo bhagavate amitāyuṣasya tathāgatasya ǀ

oṁ tathāgata-śuddhe āyur-viśodhani saṁhara-saṁhara ǀ

Sarvatathāgata-vīrya-balena pratisaṁhara āyu ǀ smara-smara Sarvatathāgata-samayaṁ ǀ

bodhi-bodhi budhya vibudhya bodhaya-bodhaya ǀ

sarva-pāpa-āvaraṇa-viśuddhe vigata-mara-bhayaṁ subuddha-buddhe ǀ hulu hulu svāhā ǀ

Doctrinally, the text synthesizes several key Buddhist strands. Its central motif of radiant light (raśmi prabhā) is connected to Indic solar imagery evoking the immense luminosity of the Buddha Amida's body. This light is personified as the feminine deity Viśuddhaprabhā ("Pure Radiance"), who is invoked directly to purify afflictions and obstacles. The dhāraṇī's goal is explicitly oriented toward Pure Land Buddhism, emphasizing rebirth in Amitāyuṣa's Sukhāvatī paradise. Furthermore, the text incorporates elements of early Buddhist cosmology and mythology, particularly in its Khotanese associations, where it is linked to the myth of Śākyamuni using his rays to dry a lake and consecrate the land of Khotan as a Buddha-field.[1]

The cultural and material impact of the Viśuddhaprabhā Dhāraṇī has been significant. Empress Kōken's Hyakumantō Darani project in the 760s-770s represents one of the world's earliest large-scale printing endeavors, predating the Diamond Sūtra. Thousands of these printed dhāraṇī slips survive in Japanese temple collections like Hōryū-ji, providing crucial evidence for early printing technology. The text also inspired artistic and architectural programs, with its descriptions of multi-tiered, multi-cakra pillars influencing stūpa design in East Asia. It remains studied as a prime example of how Buddhist tantric-adjacent practices were mobilized for personal, political, and communal ends in medieval Asia.[1]

The Viśuddhaprabhā Sūtras

The Viśuddhaprabhā Dhāraṇī is found in several Dhāraṇī Sūtras. The Sūtra of the Great Dhāraṇī of Pure Immaculate Light (Ch: 無垢淨光大陀羅尼經) is text number 1024 in the Taisho Tripitaka.

In this scripture, there is a story of the Buddha saving a Brahmana, and it says that if someone memorizes the Dharani, repairs the pagoda, makes a small pagoda and puts a mantra in it and serves it, he or she will extend their lives and receive many blessings.

The content of this scripture begins with the Buddha saving a Brahmana who was near death while the Buddha was in the Temple ( 精舍) of Kapilavastu (迦毘羅衛). When a Bhaglaman bhikkhu who didn't believe in Buddhism came to Buddha after he heard a coroner's statement that he would die in seven days, the Buddha said this Brahmana would die and go to hell and continue to suffer. The Brahman repented, sincerely pleaded and begged him to rescue him from the suffering of hell. Then the Buddha said, 'If you repair an old pagoda on the three streets of Kapilavastu, make a small pagoda and put a mantra in it serve it, your life will be extended and you will receive many blessings. And wherever you reincarnate, your body will not have a handicap, all your sins will disappear, and you will always be always protected by the Buddha." After he spoke, Brahmana went to the place where the old pagoda was and tried to repair it. At this time, Bodhisattva (除業 障菩薩) made this Dharani to wash away the afflictions of sentient beings and to extend life.

The Korean Great Dhāraṇī Sūtra

The Great Dhāraṇī Sūtra (K: Mugujŏnggwang Taedaranigyŏng, 무구정광대다라니경, Ch: 無垢淨光大陀羅尼經) was discovered in October 13, 1966 during repairs of Seokgatap (the three-storied pagoda) in Bulguksa which is located in South Korea. Joseph Needham assumed it was made between 684 and 704, but since the Dhāraṇī Sūtra was translated into Chinese from Sanskrit in 704, and Bulguksa was built in 751, it is assumed that it was built between the two periods, and is considered to be one of the oldest woodblock prints (on hanji) in the world.[3][4]

The text contains Chinese characters of Empress Wu which were used only when the Tang dynasty of China was ruling, so it is acknowledged to have been printed before Seokgatap was repaired. However, The Great Dhāraṇī Sūtra contains the character 照, which is part of Empress Wu's name, indicating that it was produced in a location far from Tang dynasty. It is currently designated as National Treasure No. 126-6.[3][4]

In 1966, a bundle of paper known as the "ink sheet (墨書紙片)" was found. This document was preserved in 1988–89, and in 1997–98 it was separated into 110 pages. It was interpreted in 2005 and 2007, and caused a controversy over the production age of the Great Dhāraṇī Sūtra.[3]

The Seokgatap pagoda, where the text was found, is an East Asian stupa, traditionally built as a sacred tower which is filled with sari relics, which sanctify the structure. The relics are divided into the sinsari (the relics of the Buddha) and the bubsari (the scripture relics). The scripture which was largely prevalent in the Unified Silla period is the "Mugujeonggwang Daedaranigyeong (無垢淨光大陀羅尼經)" translated from Chinese in 704. This scripture states that when building or repairing a tower, it is necessary to use 99 or 77 bundles of darani to put it in a small mud-tower and seal it in, which extends the life span and extinguishes all sins. In 706, the royal family of Silla implemented the contents of this scripture in the memorial service for the king of the fleet, and in the sari locker to enter into the tower of Hwangbok for the temporal king. In other words, it depicts 99 small towers on the surface of the sari enclosure to bless the sari. After the 9th century, the expression of these small towers was established as a sari locker method that encircles 99 or 77 small towers containing Darani and spreads to the whole area of Unified Silla.[5]

Structure

The Great Dhāraṇī Sūtra consists of 12 sheets of paper, totalling 620 cm in length and 8 cm in height. Each line contains around 8 characters.[3] The first sheet has 56 rows and its size is 56.8 cm. The second sheet has 55 rows and its size is 53.8 cm. The third sheet has 55 rows and its size is 53.2 cm. The fourth sheet has 57 rows and its size is 52.9 cm. The fifth sheet has 56 rows and its size is 54.5 cm. The sixth sheet has 62 rows and its size is 55.1 cm. The seventh sheet has 61 rows and its size is 54.3 cm. The eighth sheet has 59 rows and its size is 55.6 cm. The ninth sheet has 60 rows and its size is 55 cm. The tenth sheet has 63 rows and its size is 54.2 cm. The eleventh sheet has 61 rows and its size is 53.9 cm. The twelfth sheet has 38 rows and its size is 43.9 cm.

A microscopic examination revealed that the papers of The Great Dharani Sutra were made as hanji, which is the traditional Korean paper handmade from mulberry trees.

Controversy

As the book is considered the oldest surviving woodblock print in the world, it is the source of claims by some Korean scholars that printing was invented in Korea. This has been criticized by Chinese and Japanese historians while other Korean scholars have advised caution towards the claims. Archaeological discoveries since 1966 have pushed the existence of extant woodblock prints earlier in China, including a printed Sanskrit dharani charm in Xi'an dated to the mid-7th century and a printed Lotus Sutra dated between 690 and 699 in Turpan. The Lotus Sutra in Turpan contains the same set of Chinese characters specific to the reign of Wu Zetian as the Great Dharani Sutra in Korea. Historian Pan Jixing notes that some Korean scholars have ignored these discoveries.[6] However, The Great Dharani Sutra contains the character 照, which is part of Empress Wu's name, indicating that it was produced in a location far from Tang dynasty.

The Hyakumantō Darani Pagodas

Hyakumantō Darani (百万塔陀羅尼)
One Million Pagodas and Dharani Prayers
MaterialWashi (paper), ink, wood
WritingJapanese
Created764-770 C.E.
Present locationvarious

The Hyakumantō Darani (百万塔陀羅尼), or the "One Million Pagodas and Dharani Prayers", are a series of Buddhist prayers or spells that were printed on paper and then rolled up and housed in wooden cases that resemble miniature pagodas in both appearance and meaning. Although woodblock-printed books from Chinese Buddhist temples were seen in Japan as early as the 8th century, the Hyakumantō Darani are the earliest surviving examples of printing in Japan and, alongside the Korean Dharani Sutra, are considered to be some of the world's oldest existent printed matter.

Manufacture

The production of the Hyakumantō Darani was a huge undertaking. In the year of her resumption of the throne, 764, the Empress Shōtoku commissioned the one million small wooden pagodas (Hyakumantō (百万塔)), each containing a small piece of paper (typically 6 x 45 cm) printed with a Buddhist text, the Vimalasuddhaprabhasa mahadharani sutra (Mukujōkō daidarani kyō (無垢淨光大陀羅尼經)[7]). It is thought they were printed in Nara, where the facilities, craftsmen and skills existed to undertake such large scale production.[8] Marks on the bases of the wooden pagodas indicate that they were worked on lathes and studies of these have identified that more than 100 different lathes were used in their production.[9] More than 45,000 pagodas and 3,962 printed dharani survive in the Hōryū-ji temple near Nara, but globally fewer than 50,000 pagodas are known to still exist.[10] Their creation was completed around 770, and they were distributed to temples around the country.

Historical context

There are various theories around Shōtoku's motives for commissioning the Hyakumantō Darani. One is that of remorse and thanksgiving for the suppression of the Emi Rebellion of 764, and another is as an assertion of power and control over resources, but the act could equally serve both political and devotional aims.[11] Either it was felt that printing as a technology had served its ritual purpose through the creation of the Hyakumantō Darani, or simply that the cost of this mass production proved prohibitive, but printing technology did not become widespread until the tenth century and the production, and distribution of books continued to rely heavily on hand-copying manuscripts.[12]

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h Chandra, Lokesh. "Dhāraṇī of Pure Radiance (Viśuddha-Prabhā)." The Journal of Oriental Studies. Volume, v.32. Date, 2023. Pages, 162 - 192.
  2. ^ Pan, Jixing (1997). "On the origin of printing in the light of new archaeological discoveries". Chinese Science Bulletin. 42 (12): 976–981. Bibcode:1997ChSBu..42..976P. doi:10.1007/BF02882611. S2CID 98230482.
  3. ^ a b c d "Reliquaries from the Three-story Stone Pagoda of Bulguksa Temple". Heritage Information. Cultural Heritage Administration. Retrieved 22 Jun 2017.
  4. ^ a b "The Oldest Surviving Block Printing from Korea?". History of Information. Jeremy Norman & Co., Inc. Retrieved 22 Jun 2017.
  5. ^ "탑 안에 들어간 塔이야기". National Museum of Korea. 2008. Retrieved 22 Jun 2017.
  6. ^ Pan, Jixing (1997). "On the Origin of Printing in the Light of New Archaeological Discoveries". Chinese Science Bulletin. 42 (12): 976–981 [pp. 979–980]. Bibcode:1997ChSBu..42..976P. doi:10.1007/BF02882611. ISSN 1001-6538. S2CID 98230482.
  7. ^ "Mukujôkô daidarani kyô = The Sutra of the Great Incantations of Undefiled Pure Light = Vimalasuddhaprabhasa Mahadharani Suttra". Archived from the original on 2018-03-04. Retrieved 2017-12-29.
  8. ^ Kornicki, Peter (11 January 2012). "The Hyakumantō Darani and the Origins of Printing in Eighth-Century Japan". International Journal of Asian Studies. 9 (1): 43–70. doi:10.1017/S1479591411000180. S2CID 146242695. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
  9. ^ Kornicki, Peter (11 January 2012). "The Hyakumanto Darani and the Origins of Printing in Eighth-Century Japan". International Journal of Asian Studies. 9 (1): 56. doi:10.1017/S1479591411000180. S2CID 146242695. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
  10. ^ Kornicki, Peter (11 January 2012). "The Hyakumanto Darani and the Origins of Printing in Eighth-Century Japan". International Journal of Asian Studies. 9 (1): 45. doi:10.1017/S1479591411000180. S2CID 146242695. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
  11. ^ Kornicki, Peter (11 January 2012). "The Hyakumanto Darani and the Origins of Printing in Eighth-Century Japan". International Journal of Asian Studies. 9 (1): 57–59. doi:10.1017/S1479591411000180. S2CID 146242695. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
  12. ^ Kornicki, Peter (11 January 2012). "The Hyakumanto Darani and the Origins of Printing in Eighth-Century Japan". International Journal of Asian Studies. 9 (1): 57–59. doi:10.1017/S1479591411000180. S2CID 146242695. Retrieved 6 March 2020.

Further reading

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