Omar M. Yaghi

Omar M. Yaghi
عمر ياغي
Yaghi in 2025
Born
Omar Mwannes Yaghi

(1965-02-09) February 9, 1965
Amman, Jordan
Citizenship
  • Palestinian
  • Jordanian

  • Saudi
  • American
Education
Known forReticular chemistry
Metal-organic frameworks
Awards
List
Scientific career
FieldsChemistry
Institutions
List
ThesisSynthesis, Structure, and Reactivity of Polyoxovanadates in Nonaqueous Media (1990)
Doctoral advisorWalter G. Klemperer
Other academic advisorsRichard H. Holm (postdoc)
WebsiteOfficial website

Omar Mwannes Yaghi (Arabic: عمر مُؤنس ياغي; born February 9, 1965) is a chemist[a] best known for developing metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) and pioneering reticular chemistry. He was awarded the 2025 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, shared with Richard Robson and Susumu Kitagawa, for this work.[3]

Yaghi is a University Professor and James and Neeltje Tretter Endowed Chair in Chemistry at the University of California, Berkeley. He is also an affiliate scientist at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, founding director of the Berkeley Global Science Institute, and a member of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences[4] and the German National Academy of Sciences Leopoldina.[5][6] In January 2025, he became the seventh president of the World Cultural Council, an international organization promoting cultural and scientific advancement.[7]

Early life and education

Omar Mwannes Yaghi[8] was born in Amman, Jordan, on February 9, 1965,[9] to a Palestinian refugee family[10][11] that had fled from Masmiya during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War.[12][13] He grew up in a crowded household with many children, all living in a single room that also housed the family's livestock.[14] The family had limited access to clean water.[15]

At the age of 15, encouraged by his father, he moved to the United States.[16] Although he knew little English, he began classes at Hudson Valley Community College and later transferred to the State University of New York at Albany, where he completed his undergraduate degree. He pursued his graduate studies at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, earning his PhD in 1990 under the guidance of Walter G. Klemperer.[17] He then served as a National Science Foundation postdoctoral fellow at Harvard University (1990–1992) under Richard H. Holm.

In 2021, Yaghi was granted Saudi citizenship by royal decree.[2]

Academic career

Yaghi began his academic career as an assistant professor at Arizona State University (1992–1998). He then held the Robert W. Parry Professorship of Chemistry at the University of Michigan (1999–2006), followed by the Christopher S. Foote Professorship of Chemistry and the Irving and Jean Stone Chair in Physical Sciences at the University of California, Los Angeles (2007–2012).[18]

In 2012, he moved to the University of California, Berkeley, where he is the James and Neeltje Tretter Professor of Chemistry. From 2012 to 2013, he served as the director of the Molecular Foundry at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. He is the Founding Director of the Berkeley Global Science Institute and a co-director of the Kavli Energy NanoSciences Institute, a partnership between UC Berkeley and the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. He also co-directs the California Research Alliance by BASF and the Bakar Institute of Digital Materials for the Planet.[19]

In May 2025, the University of California Board of Regents promoted Yaghi to the rank of University Professor, the system's highest honor reserved for scholars of the highest international distinction.[20]

Research

Reticular chemistry

See also: Reticular materials

Yaghi is the pioneer of reticular chemistry, a field dedicated to assembling molecular building blocks into open, crystalline frameworks using strong bonds.[21][22][23]

According to the International Balzan Prize Foundation, Yaghi first proposed using molecular building blocks and strong bonds to form crystalline materials in the early 1990s. At the time, the scientific community considered this idea chemically unfeasible, as such syntheses typically resulted in non-crystalline, amorphous solids. However, in 1995, Yaghi successfully crystallized metal-organic structures in which metal ions are connected by charged organic linkers, such as carboxylates, via strong bonds. This breakthrough led to the development of a new class of materials known as metal–organic frameworks (MOFs), marking the birth of reticular chemistry.[24]

Metal-organic frameworks

Yaghi's most recognized work is in the design, synthesis, application, and popularization of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs). According to IUPAC, MOFs are a subclass of coordination polymers, a category first reported in 1959.[25] Earlier work included E. A. Tomic's 1965 study on the thermal stability of various coordination polymers[26] and the work of Hoskins and Richard Robson in 1989 on a 3D coordination polymer structure.[27][28] However, these early coordination polymers were typically frail, disordered structures with poorly defined properties.[29]

In the 1990s, Yaghi made three key breakthroughs that transformed fragile coordination polymers into the architecturally robust, permanently porous MOFs in use today:

  1. The crystallization of metal-organic structures using strong bonds between metal ions and charged organic linkers like carboxylates (1995).[30]
  2. The introduction of metal-carboxylate clusters as secondary building units (SBUs), which enabled robust frameworks with permanent porosity, later confirmed by gas adsorption isotherms (1998).[31]
  3. The realization of ultra-high porosity with MOF-5 (1999).[32]

The strong bonds in MOFs are fundamental to their structural robustness, ultra-high porosity, and longevity in industrial applications.

Covalent organic frameworks

In 2005, Omar M. Yaghi published the seminal paper on covalent organic frameworks (COFs), reporting the first series of 2D COFs.[33] This work demonstrated the design and synthesis of COFs via condensation reactions of 1,4-benzenediboronic acid (p-C6H4[B(OH)2]2) and 2,3,6,7,10,11-hexahydroxytriphenylene (C18H6(OH)6). Powder X-ray diffraction of the highly crystalline products—with empirical formulas (C3H2BO)6·(C9H12)1 (COF-1) and C9H4BO2 (COF-5)—revealed 2D expanded porous graphitic layers with either staggered (COF-1) or eclipsed (COF-5) structures. These architectures are held together by strong covalent bonds between boron, carbon, and oxygen atoms, creating rigid porous structures with pore sizes ranging from 7 to 27 ångströms. COF-1 and COF-5 exhibit high thermal stability (up to 500–600 °C), permanent porosity, and high surface areas of 711 and 1590 square meters per gram, respectively.[34]

The synthesis of 3D COFs had been hindered by longstanding practical and conceptual challenges until Yaghi's group first achieved it in 2007.[35]

Yaghi also pioneered the design and production of zeolitic imidazolate frameworks (ZIFs). MOFs, COFs, and ZIFs are renowned for their extreme properties, such as very high surface areas (e.g., 5640 m2/g for MOF-177)[36] and very low crystalline densities (e.g., 0.17 g·cm−3 for COF-108).[37]

Molecular weaving

Yaghi pioneered the field of molecular weaving, achieving the first synthesis of a material (COF-505) woven at the atomic and molecular levels.[39][40]

He has led efforts to apply reticular materials in clean energy technologies, including hydrogen and methane storage,[41][42] carbon dioxide capture,[43][44] and harvesting water from desert air.[45]

According to a Thomson Reuters analysis, Yaghi was the world's second-most-cited chemist between 2000 and 2010.[46]

Entrepreneurship

In 2020, Yaghi founded Atoco, a California-based startup focused on commercializing his advancements in MOF and COF technologies for carbon capture and atmospheric water harvesting.[47][48]

In 2021, he co-founded a second startup, H2MOF, which applies his discoveries in reticular chemistry to address challenges in hydrogen storage.[49]

Honors and awards

Yaghi has received numerous international awards and medals, including the Nobel Prize in Chemistry (2025), the Albert Einstein World Award of Science (2017), the Wolf Prize in Chemistry (2018), the Gregori Aminoff Prize (2019), the VinFuture Prize (2022), and the Science for the Future Ernest Solvay Prize (2024). His key honors include:

Notes

  1. ^ Yaghi was born into Palestinian refugee family in Amman, Jordan. When he was 15, he moved to the United States and he received Saudi citizenship in 2021. He thus holds citizenship in Jordan, the United States[1] and Saudi Arabia.[2]

References

  1. ^ "Trio wins chemistry Nobel Prize for new form of molecular architecture". BGNES: Breaking News, Latest News and Videos (in Bulgarian). 2025-10-08. Retrieved 2025-10-09.
  2. ^ a b "Internationally renowned chemist Omar Yaghi 'honored to accept Saudi citizenship'". arabnews.com. 14 November 2021.
  3. ^ "Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2025". NobelPrize.org. Retrieved 2025-10-08.
  4. ^ " National Academy of Sciences Elects Members and Foreign Associates ", National Academy of Sciences, Retrieved on 30 April 2019.
  5. ^ " List of Members Expert Search Professor Dr. Omar M. Yaghi ", German National Academy of Sciences Leopoldina "], Retrieved on 9 June 2023.
  6. ^ " Omar Yaghi appointed as University Professor ", UC Berkeley College of Chemistry "], Retrieved on 26 June 2025.
  7. ^ " Our President ", World Cultural Council, Retrieved on 25 July 2025.
  8. ^ Khan, Ghazanfar Ali (February 4, 2015). "Dr. Zakir Naik wins King Faisal award". Arab News. Retrieved 2025-10-09.
  9. ^ Gregersen, Erik. "Omar M. Yaghi". Encyclopædia Britannica (Online ed.). Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. ISSN 1085-9721. Retrieved October 9, 2025.
  10. ^ Ahlander, Johan; Pollard, Niklas; Mannes, Marie (October 8, 2025). "Trio win Nobel chemistry prize for work on 'Hermione's handbag' materials". Reuters.
  11. ^ " Omar Yaghi Winner of Wolf Prize in Chemistry – 2018 " Archived 2022-05-17 at the Wayback Machine, Wolf Foundation, Retrieved on 4 March 2018.
  12. ^ Fraioli, Luca (2025-11-07). "Il premio Nobel Omar Yaghi: "Ecco come catturiamo la CO2 dall'atmosfera"". la Repubblica (in Italian). Retrieved 2025-11-10.
  13. ^ "فوز عمر ياغي الأردني من أصل فلسطيني بجائزة نوبل في الكيمياء" (in Arabic). Arab 48. October 8, 2025. Archived from the original on October 9, 2025. Retrieved October 8, 2025.
  14. ^ "A Pioneer in Reticular Chemistry: Shaping a Sustainable Future – Omar M. Yaghi", [Tang Prize documentary], Retrieved on 19 May 2025.
  15. ^ "Omar Yaghi: Harvesting water from desert air", [Molecular Frontiers Symposium "Planet Earth: A Scientific Journey", at Stockholm University, May 9–10, 2019], Retrieved on 30 December 2019.
  16. ^ " The Alchemist " Archived 2018-08-28 at the Wayback Machine, Forbes, Retrieved on 1 February 2018.
  17. ^ Yaghi, Omar M. (1990). Synthesis, structure, and reactivity of polyoxovanadates in nonaqueous media (PhD thesis). University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign. OCLC 774917622. ProQuest 303854222.
  18. ^ "Wolf Prize in Chemistry: M. Fujita and O. M. Yaghi / Albrecht Kossel Prize: A. Beck-Sickinger". Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 57 (13): 3287. 2018. Bibcode:2018ACIE...57.3287.. doi:10.1002/anie.201802237. PMID 29504702.
  19. ^ " New institute brings together chemistry and machine learning to tackle climate change ", Retrieved on 21 September 2022.
  20. ^ " Omar Yaghi appointed as University Professor ", UC Berkeley College of Chemistry, Retrieved on 25 July 2025.
  21. ^ " Omar Yaghi wins Albert Einstein World Award of Science ", Chemical & Engineering News, 10 July 2017. Retrieved on 12 March 2018.
  22. ^ " Makoto Fujita and Omar Yaghi win Wolf Prize in Chemistry ", Chemical & Engineering News, 19 February 2018. Retrieved on 12 March 2018.
  23. ^ " Spiers Memorial Lecture – Progress and prospects of reticular chemistry ", Royal Society of Chemistry, 18 August 2017. Retrieved on 12 March 2018.
  24. ^ "Omar M. Yaghi 2024 Balzan Prize for Nanoporous Materials for Environmental Applications". Fondazione Internazionale Premio Balzan. International Balzan Prize Foundation. November 22, 2024. Retrieved December 25, 2024.
  25. ^ Kinoshita, Yukio; Matsubara, Ikuo; Higuchi, Taiichi; Saito, Yoshihiko (1959-11-01). "The Crystal Structure of Bis(adiponitrilo)copper(I) Nitrate". Bulletin of the Chemical Society of Japan. 32 (11): 1221–1226. doi:10.1246/bcsj.32.1221. ISSN 0009-2673.
  26. ^ Tomic, E. A. (1965). "Thermal stability of coordination polymers". Journal of Applied Polymer Science. 9 (11): 3745–3752. Bibcode:1965JAPS....9.3745T. doi:10.1002/app.1965.070091121.
  27. ^ Hoskins, Bernard F.; Robson, Richard (July 1989). "Infinite polymeric frameworks consisting of three dimensionally linked rod-like segments". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 111 (15): 5962–5964. Bibcode:1989JAChS.111.5962H. doi:10.1021/ja00197a079. ISSN 0002-7863.
  28. ^ Robson, R. (2008-09-23). "Design and its limitations in the construction of bi- and poly-nuclear coordination complexes and coordination polymers (aka MOFs): a personal view". Dalton Transactions (38): 5113–5131. doi:10.1039/B805617J. ISSN 1477-9234. PMID 18813362.
  29. ^ "This year's Aminoff Prize goes to the founders of reticular chemistry". September 13, 2018.
  30. ^ Yaghi, O. M.; Li, G.; Li, H. (1995). "Selective binding and removal of guests in a microporous metal–organic framework". Nature. 378 (6558): 703–706. Bibcode:1995Natur.378..703Y. doi:10.1038/378703a0.
  31. ^ Li, H.; Eddaoudi, M.; Groy, T. L.; Yaghi, O. M. (1998). "Establishing Microporosity in Open Metal-Organic Frameworks: Gas Sorption Isotherms for Zn (BDC)(BDC= 1,4-Benzenedicarboxylate)". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 120 (33): 8571–8572. doi:10.1021/ja981669x.
  32. ^ Li, H.; Eddaoudi, M.; O’Keeffee, M.; Yaghi, O. M. (1999). "Design and synthesis of an exceptionally stable and highly porous metal-organic framework". Nature. 402 (6759): 276–279. Bibcode:1999Natur.402..276L. doi:10.1038/46248. hdl:2027.42/62847.
  33. ^ CôTé, Adrien P.; Benin, Annabelle I.; Ockwig, Nathan W.; O'Keeffe, Michael; Matzger, Adam J.; Yaghi, Omar M. (November 18, 2005). "Porous, Crystalline, Covalent Organic Frameworks". Science. 310 (5751): 1166–1170. Bibcode:2005Sci...310.1166C. doi:10.1126/science.1120411. PMID 16293756.
  34. ^ CôTé, Adrien P.; Benin, Annabelle I.; Ockwig, Nathan W.; O'Keeffe, Michael; Matzger, Adam J.; Yaghi, Omar M. (November 18, 2005). "Porous, Crystalline, Covalent Organic Frameworks". Science. 310 (5751): 1166–1170. Bibcode:2005Sci...310.1166C. doi:10.1126/science.1120411. PMID 16293756.
  35. ^ El-Kaderi, H. M.; Hunt, J. R.; Mendoza-Cortes, J. L.; Cote, A. P.; Taylor, R. E.; O'Keeffe, M.; Yaghi, O. M. (2007). "Designed Synthesis of 3D Covalent Organic Frameworks". Science. 316 (5822): 268–272. Bibcode:2007Sci...316..268E. doi:10.1126/science.1139915. PMID 17431178. S2CID 19555677.
  36. ^ A.G. Wong-Foy; A.J. Matzger; O.M. Yaghi (2006). "Exceptional H2 Saturation Uptake in Microporous Metal-Organic Frameworks". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 128 (11): 3494–3495. doi:10.1021/ja058213h. PMID 16536503.
  37. ^ H.M. El-Kaderi; J.R. Hunt; J.L. Mendoza-Cortes; A.P. Côté; R.E. Taylor; M. O'Keeffe; O.M. Yaghi (2007). "Designed Synthesis of 3D Covalent Organic Frameworks" (PDF). Science. 316 (5822): 268–272. Bibcode:2007Sci...316..268E. doi:10.1126/science.1139915. PMID 17431178. S2CID 19555677.
  38. ^ Liu, Yuzhong; Ma, Yanhang; Zhao, Yingbo; Sun, Xixi; Gándara, Felipe; Furukawa, Hiroyasu; Liu, Zheng; Zhu, Hanyu; Zhu, Chenhui; Suenaga, Kazutomo; Oleynikov, Peter; Alshammari, Ahmad S.; Zhang, Xiang; Terasaki, Osamu; Yaghi, Omar M. (2016-01-22). "Weaving of organic threads into a crystalline covalent organic framework". Science. 351 (6271): 365–369. Bibcode:2016Sci...351..365L. doi:10.1126/science.aad4011. ISSN 1095-9203. PMID 26798010.
  39. ^ " Weaving of organic threads into a crystalline covalent organic framework ", Science (journal), Retrieved on 16 June 2019.
  40. ^ " First materials woven at atomic and molecular levels: Weaving a new story for COFs and MOFs ", ScienceDaily, Retrieved on 16 June 2019.
  41. ^ " Crystal Sponges ", Chemical & Engineering News , 21 January 2002. Retrieved on 12 March 2018.
  42. ^ " Porous Crystals Soak Up Hydrogen ", Chemical & Engineering News, 19 May 2003. Retrieved on 12 March 2018.
  43. ^ " A Better Way to Capture Carbon ", MIT Technology Review, 15 February 2008. Retrieved on 12 March 2018.
  44. ^ " Super-sized molecular sponges boost carbon capture ", Chemistry World, 7 May 2008. Retrieved on 12 March 2018.
  45. ^ " This new solar-powered device can pull water straight from the desert air ", Science Magazine, April 13, 2017. Retrieved on March 10, 2018.
  46. ^ "Top 100 Chemists, 2000–2010 –". ScienceWatch.com. Retrieved 2022-02-03.
  47. ^ "Founder, Prof. Omar Yaghi: "From Desert to Discovery: The Journey of Reticular Chemistry"". Atoco. 2024-01-12. Retrieved 2024-04-29.
  48. ^ "A World Renowned Chemist Wants to Suck Water, and Carbon, Out of the Air". Time. 2023-09-08. Retrieved 2024-04-29.
  49. ^ Meredith, Sam (2024-02-15). "'The holy grail': Startup backed by a Nobel laureate vying for a breakthrough on hydrogen storage". CNBC. Retrieved 2024-04-29.
  50. ^ "The ExxonMobil Award Faculty Fellowship in Solid State Chemistry". Division of Inorganic Chemistry. Retrieved 2024-05-10.
  51. ^ "Sacconi Medal". www.cerm.unifi.it. Retrieved 2024-05-10.
  52. ^ "2007 Annual Merit Review Awards | Hydrogen Program". www.hydrogen.energy.gov. Retrieved 2024-05-10.
  53. ^ "MRS Medal | Materials Research Society Awards". www.mrs.org. Retrieved 2024-05-10.
  54. ^ "2007 Newcomb Cleveland Prize Recipients". American Association for the Advancement of Science. 2007.
  55. ^ "Past Recipients". American Chemical Society. Retrieved 2024-05-10.
  56. ^ "Omar Yaghi Is Izatt-Christensen Awardee". Chemical & Engineering News. Retrieved 2024-05-10.
  57. ^ "Centenary Prizes for Chemistry and Communication – previous winners". Royal Society of Chemistry. 11 September 2020. Retrieved 2024-05-10.
  58. ^ "IEEE Nanotechnology Council Advancing Nanotech for Humanity". IEEE Nanotechnology Council. 2024-05-10.
  59. ^ "Yaghi wins Faisal Prize for Science | College of Chemistry". chemistry.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 2024-05-10.
  60. ^ "The Mustafa Prize". mustafaprize.org. Retrieved 2024-05-10.
  61. ^ "2016 Academy Prize Laureates | Turkish Academy of Sciences". www.tuba.gov.tr. Retrieved 2024-05-10.
  62. ^ "Prizes and awards 2017". Royal Society of Chemistry. 2017-05-09. Retrieved 2024-05-10.
  63. ^ "Prof. Yaghi receives the King Abdullah II Ibn Al Hussein Order of Distinction, First Class | Berkeley Global Science Institute". globalscience.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 2024-05-10.
  64. ^ "Professor Omar M. Yaghi wins 2017 Japan Society of Coordination Chemistry International Award | College of Chemistry". chemistry.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 2024-05-10.
  65. ^ "Bailar Medalists (Lecturers) | Chemistry at Illinois". chemistry.illinois.edu. Retrieved 2024-05-10.
  66. ^ "Laureates". www.kfas.org. Retrieved 2024-05-10.
  67. ^ admin (2017-05-30). "Prof. Omar M. Yaghi". World Cultural Council. Retrieved 2024-05-10.
  68. ^ "The BBVA Foundation distinguishes Omar Yaghi, leader of a chemistry producing new materials with the ability to capture CO2 or harvest water from the air". Premios Fronteras. Retrieved 2024-05-10.
  69. ^ "Omar Yaghi awarded 2018 Wolf Prize | College of Chemistry". chemistry.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 2024-05-10.
  70. ^ "World Economic Forum". 2024-05-10.
  71. ^ "PSIPW Announces Winners for 8th Award at UNISPACE+50". Prince Sultan Bin Abdulaziz International Prize for Water.
  72. ^ "Omar Yaghi wins 2018 Eni Energy Transition Award | College of Chemistry". chemistry.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 2024-05-10.
  73. ^ "Gregori Aminoff Prize symposium 2019". Kungl. Vetenskapsakademien. Retrieved 2024-05-10.
  74. ^ "Winners of 'MBR Medal for Scientific Excellence' Honoured". mbrf.ae. Retrieved 2024-05-10.
  75. ^ "Sixth Nano Research Award presented to Xinhe Bao and Omar M. Yaghi | College of Chemistry". chemistry.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 2024-05-10.
  76. ^ "August Wilhelm von Hofmann Commemorative Coin | Gesellschaft Deutscher Chemiker e.V." en.gdch.de. Retrieved 2024-05-10.
  77. ^ "Omar Yaghi receives 2020 Royal Society of Chemistry award | College of Chemistry". chemistry.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 2024-05-10.
  78. ^ "Solvay Institutes". www.solvayinstitutes.be. Retrieved 2024-05-10.
  79. ^ "Gerhard Ertl Lecture". www.fhi.mpg.de. Retrieved 2024-05-10.
  80. ^ "Professor Omar M. Yaghi". VinFuture Prize. Retrieved 2024-05-10.
  81. ^ "Omar Yaghi awarded the Wilhelm Exner medal | College of Chemistry". chemistry.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 2024-05-10.
  82. ^ "Syensqo awards its €300k Ernest Solvay Prize to Omar Yaghi". Syensqo. 2024-01-19. Retrieved 2024-05-10.
  83. ^ Shan, Shelley. "Omar Yanghi named Tang Prize winner". Taipei Times. Retrieved 18 June 2024.
  84. ^ Chang, Hsin-yu; Hsiao, Alison (18 June 2024). "TANG PRIZE/Pioneering chemist contributes to sustainability with 'Lego building'". Central News Agency. Retrieved 18 June 2024.
  85. ^ "2024 Ullyot Public Affairs Lecturer: Omar Yaghi | Science History Institute". sciencehistory.org. Retrieved 2024-09-09.
  86. ^ "THE 2024 BALZAN PRIZEWINNERS | International Balzan Prize Foundation". balzan.org. 9 September 2024. Retrieved 2024-09-09.
  87. ^ "Jordanian scientist Omar Yaghi named 'Great Arab Minds' winner in natural sciences | GULF NEWS". 23 December 2024. Retrieved 2024-12-24.
  88. ^ "Omar M. Yaghi Receives the 2025 IUPAC-Soong Prize | The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC)". 7 April 2025. Retrieved 2025-04-07.
  89. ^ "Princeton awards six honorary degrees | Princeton University News". Retrieved 2025-05-27.
  90. ^ " Our President ", World Cultural Council, Retrieved on 25 July 2025.
  91. ^ " Omar M. Yaghi to receive 2025 Von Hippel Award, the Materials Research Society’s highest honor ", Materials Research Society, Retrieved on 30 September 2025.
  92. ^ "Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2025". NobelPrize.org. Retrieved 2025-10-08.
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is available under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.