L'Iran sous les Sassanides

L'Iran sous les Sassanides (in French, lit. 'Iran under the Sassanids') is a history book by Arthur Christensen that was published in 1936. It is a historical overview of Iran under the Sasanian Empire, describing how the dynasty developed, governed, and influenced the region throughout late antiquity. The book was generally well received by critics.

The book was written by Arthur Christensen, and its first edition—running to 559 pages—was published in 1936 through Levin & Munksgaard in Copenhagen and P. Geuthner in Paris.^[1] Christensen, who had addressed the subject of Sasanian-era Iran several years earlier in his book L'Empire des Sassanides: Le peuple, l'État, la cour (in French, lit. 'The Empire of the Sassanids: The people, the state, the court'), produced a far more extensive and comprehensive study of the topic in this later work.^[2]

The Persian translation of the book, for the first time published two years later in 1938, by Gholamreza Rashid-Yasemi under the title ایران در زمان ساسانیان (lit. 'Iran in the Time of the Sassanids').^[2] One year before his death in 1944, Christensen issued the second edition of the work, which not only included substantial additions but also incorporated certain revisions. Some of these changes were prompted by critiques of the first edition, which Christensen explicitly acknowledges in the preface to the second edition.^[2][3]

The book, accompanied by two forewords (the author wrote and added separate forewords for the first and second editions), an introduction, and a epilogue, presents its content in two parts. The first part—which the author wrote as the introduction—is much shorter than the second part, and outlines a summary of Iranian history before the rise of the Sasanians. In the second part, Christensen first lists his sources for narrating the history of Sasanian Iran, then addresses Sasanian Iranian history in ten chapters.

The first chapter examines Pars during the Seleucid and Parthian periods, focusing on the Bazrangids and the family of Sasan, and narrates the revolt of Pābag and his sons. It covers the conquests of Ardashir I and the fall of the Parthian dynasty, referencing his investiture inscription and the city of Istakhr. The narrative also describes the palace and fire temple of Firuzabad, discusses the kingdoms of Hira and the Ghassanids, and analyzes the historical personality of Ardashir I, alongside his portrayal in later legends.

The second chapter analyzes the administrative and societal organization of the Sasanian state, detailing its specific governing attributes. It examines the centralized administrative formations, including the office of the wuzurg framadar and various ministries. The political and social strata of the nation are outlined, alongside the administration of the provinces. Further sections are dedicated to state finances, religious institutions, industry and commerce, the military, and the network of public roads.

The third chapter examines the establishment of Zoroastrianism as the state religion and the crucial writing down of the Avesta during the Sasanian era. It analyzes the differences between Zoroastrianism of the Sasanian period and Zoroastrianism after the Sasanians, while also addressing rival Zurvanite beliefs. The discussion covers the religion's institutional and practical aspects, including fire temples, the calendar, public festivals, as well as the role of astrology in popular understanding.

The fourth chapter covers the enthronement ceremony of Shapur I. It examines the doctrines of Mani and his religion, as well as the Manichaean community, its organizational structures and the spread of Mani's teachings after his death.

The fifth chapter outlines the foundations of the Sasanian military establishment. It covers the wars of Ardashir I and Shapur I against Roman Empire, including Shapur's victory over Emperor Valerian and his depiction in victory relief. The narrative moves through the affairs of Palmyra and the reigns of Hormizd I, Bahram I, and Bahram II, noting their respective rock reliefs. It discusses the rule of Bahram III and Narseh, highlighting Narseh's own relief. The renewed war with the Romans during the reign of Hormizd II is addressed. Significant focus is given to Shapur II, his great war, a selection from the narrative of Ammianus, and also about Shapur II's character. Finally, the chapter outlines the reigns of Ardashir II, Shapur III, and Bahram IV, concluding with the rock reliefs of Ardashir II and Shapur II and III.

The sixth chapter examines the structure of the Sasanian state, detailing the primary status and power of the clerics and nobles. It explores the zenith of Zoroastrian doctrine as the official religion and the legal and social position of Jews and Christians within the Iranian Empire. Specific focus is given to the persecution and suffering of Christians during the reign of Shapur II. The analysis extends through subsequent sovereignty, including the rules of Yazdegerd I and Bahram V. It discusses the minister Mihr-Narseh and his family, followed by the renewed persecution of Christians under Yazdegerd II. The chapter covers matters concerning Armenia and the Syrian and Iranian Christian "martyrs". It further analyzes the doctrinal conflict between the Jacobites and Nestorians, the outcomes of the reigns of Peroz I and Valash, and the invasion by the Hephthalites. The eventual dominance of the Nestorian doctrine is noted, alongside an examination of the judicial formations of the Sasanian imperial state. The chapter concludes with a review of the book Auszüge aus syrischen Akten persischer Märtyrer (in German, lit. 'Excerpts from Syrian Records of Persian Martyrs') by Georg Hoffmann.^[4]

The seventh chapter examines the social conditions of Iranians during the Sasanian era, focusing on the class structure of society and the institution of the family, as well as civil rights. It details the first period of the reign of Kavad I, the revolutionary ideas of the Mazdakians, and the subsequent alliance of Kavad with the Mazdakians. This is followed by the dethronement and flight of Kavad and the reign of Jamasp. The narrative then covers the return of Kavad and his second period of rule, addressing the issue of royal succession. The chapter concludes with the general massacre of the Mazdakians and the death of Kavad.

The eighth chapter consolidates the imperial authority, initiating a restructuring of social ranks and implementing financial and military reforms. It chronicles wars against the Byzantine Empire, conflicts with the Hephthalites and Turks, and the conquest of Yemen. The narrative details the character of Khosrow I, the rebellion of Anoshazad, and describes the royal capital and palaces. It covers state institutions, ceremonies of the imperial court, court etiquette, privileges, titles, and statecraft during a major period of civilization marked by literary and philosophical development. The analysis extends to education and training, the sciences, medicine, and the prominence of the physician and scholar Borzuya. It examines religion and philosophy, the literary influence of India exemplified by Panchatantra, and ethical literature. The chapter further discusses the decline of the Zoroastrian religion and concludes with an assessment of the material and spiritual conditions of Iran during the age of Khosrow I.

The ninth chapter details the reign of Hormizd IV, including his personal qualities, the continuation of the war with the Eastern Roman Empire, and the rebellion of Bahram Chobin. It follows the sequence of Hormizd IV's dethronement and his assassination, leading to Khosrow II ascending the throne. The narrative covers the brief kingship of Bahram Chobin, the ensuing internal civil war, and Khosrow II's appeal for aid from the Roman Emperor. It recounts the defeat, flight, and eventual killing of Bahram Chobin, as well as the later rebellion and insurrection of Vistahm. The chapter then describes the subsequent period of Khosrow II's rule, his second war with Rome, and his personal character. It provides details on the imperial palaces, including Dastagird and the Khosrow Palace, as well as the rock reliefs at Taq-e Bostan. The text outlines the marvels of Khosrow II's court apparatus, his wives, the splendors and courtly refinements, perfumes and foods, embroidered garments, and music. It also notes the conditions of the Christians during his reign, and concludes with the dethronement and assassination of Khosrow II, and the succession of his son, Kavad II, known as Shīruyeh.

The tenth chapter chronicles the final years of the Sasanian Empire, beginning with the brief rule of Kavad II, followed by the successive monarchies of Ardashir III, Shahrbaraz, Khosrow III, and the queens Boran and Azarmidokht. It lists the subsequent, unstable reigns of Hormizd V, Khosrow IV and Peroz II, culminating with Yazdegerd III, who is noted as the last Sasanian sovereign. The narrative details the internal dissolution of the state under these ephemeral "petty kings" and warlords like Siyavakhsh, and describes the external Arab invasion. This includes the Battle of al-Qadisiyyah, the fall of the Derafsh Kaviani banner, and the conquest of Ctesiphon. It recounts further Arab conquests, the flight of Yazdegerd III to Merv, and his death there, along with the fate of his descendants. The chapter concludes by examining the state of Iran under early Arab rule.

After the tenth chapter, Christensen has included two appendices in his book: in the first, he critiques the view of L'abbé François Nau, published in a journal in 1927, concerning the dating of the Avesta's composition; and in the second, he offers a critique of the view of Stein regarding the high offices of the Sasanian state, which was published in a journal in 1920.

In a series of detailed and scholarly assessments, Arthur Christensen's L'Iran sous les Sassanides was met with widespread acclaim as a monumental synthesis, though each reviewer offered nuanced critique. In Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies, H. W. Bailey delivered a largely favorable assessment, commending Christensen for fulfilling a scholarly need with a valuable and solid work of copious documentation and sound judgment, while devoting substantial space to a meticulous catalogue of minor philological and historical corrections aimed at sharpening the book's academic utility.^[5] Writing for The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, V. Minorsky presented a deeply admiring yet critically rigorous review, framing the work as the crowning achievement of Christensen's 35-year career and praising its "catholicity" in integrating political, cultural, social, and artistic history, though he suggested the narrative could be static on key points like Armenia and offered a dense page of detailed corrections.^[6] In a glowing review for Archiv für Orientforschung, R. Ghirshman hailed the volume as a landmark and the culmination of decades of research, fully endorsing its central thesis of Sasanian continuity with earlier Iranian traditions and concluding it would remain the indispensable foundation for all future study.^[7] Bernhard Geiger, writing for Byzantion, offered largely commendatory praise for the work's masterful combination of political survey and cultural delineation, presented with pleasant lucidity, though he cautioned that its structure sometimes felt artificially disruptive and noted that certain sub-fields like law remained imperfect due to the nascent state of research.^[8] Finally, G. Messina, in Orientalia, provided a thorough and positive review, grateful for the ambitious historical framework and immense erudition, but argued that Christensen at times privileged erudite analysis over incisive historical synthesis, leaving the reader to connect the causal dots underlying the empire's development and fall.^[9] Collectively, these reviews cemented the book's status as an essential and magisterial, if not unassailable, cornerstone of Sasanian studies.

• Iran: A Modern History
• The Cambridge History of Iran
• The Comprehensive History of Iran

• L'Iran sous les Sassanides at the Internet Archive
• LCCN 37013450