Food history

Food history is an interdisciplinary field that examines the history and the cultural, economic, environmental, and sociological impacts of food and human nutrition. It is distinct from the more traditional field of culinary history, which focuses on the origin and recreation of specific recipes.

Since the 19th century, anthropologists have pioneered. the study of the role of food in traditional societies through direct observation, as well as reconstructing behavior from artifacts recovered from historical sites. The topic remains a central part of current anthropology and archaeology research as typified by K.C. Chang at Harvard.^[1][2] The systematic study of food culture by professional historians is a more recent development, inspired in large part by the French Annales school typified by Fernand Braudel.^[3] However, there have always been numerous popular historical accounts, as typified by Waverley Root.^[4] The first journal in the field, Petits Propos Culinaires, was launched in 1979 and the first conference on the subject was the 1981 Oxford Food Symposium.^[5]

Historians and political scientists have explored many national and international political aspects of food history.^[6][7] For example, they have looked at food's role as a colonial tool in Africa and Asia;^[8] "McDonaldization";^[9] the food dimensions of Mexican, Chinese and Italian diasporas;^[10] class dimension in terms of the meals served in upper, middle, and working class cafés; the Green Revolution that averted starvation in the Third World;^[11] and intense debates over Genetically modified food, and efforts to stop their importation.^[12]

From Prehistoric Britain onward, the British diet has been a story of adaptation. Early populations relied primarily on locally raised animals and crops, with their food choices continually evolving in response to changes in agricultural methods and the changing climate. The variety of British food is marked by a continual flow of external influences from invaders and global trade. Invading groups--Celts, Picts, Romans, Vikings, Saxons, Angles, Normans--each brought new ingredients and techniques, introducing staples like bread, butter, smoked fish, and spices.^[13][14] After 1600 the era of colonialism dramatically expanded the British larder. New products such as tea from China, along with curry, sugar, and chocolate, were introduced; British cuisine became a blend of global influences.^[15][16] Since the 1950s immigrant consumers and chefs from former colonies across the globe have greatly enlarged the food scene, street by street.^[17]

The food history of Canada is a dynamic tapestry woven from several key historical themes involving region, ethnicity and creativity.^[18][19][20]

The earliest cuisines are rooted in the diverse traditions of many different tribes in the First Nations, as well as Inuit, and Métis peoples. They relied on hunting and fishing, and in some cases cultivated plots of corn, beans, and squash. They smoked meat to preserve foods for the long cold winters. Some used maple sap as syrup.^[21][22]

European settlers introduced wheat, dairy, cattle, hogs, poultry and spices as well as their own culinary traditions.^[23] Early cuisine became a blend of Old World recipes adapted to local ingredients, seen in staples like the French-influenced tourtière (meat pie) and, later, the distinct French-Canadian creation of poutine.^[24] The British and Irish settlers who arrived in the Maritimes in the 18th and 19th centuries brought their own culinary traditions and ingredients, such as potatoes, cabbage, and oats. They also introduced new food preservation techniques, like pickling and canning. These settlers influenced the development of dishes like fish and brewis, a Newfoundland specialty made from salted cod, hard bread, and fatback, and Irish stew, a meat and vegetable dish popular in New Brunswick.^[25]

Canada's vast geography and varied soils and climates created distinct regional food cultures. Thus Cuisine of the Maritimes is known for its seafood (lobster, cod, chowder). Quebec has its French-Canadian classics.^[26] The Prairies focus on grains, beef, and foods tied to settlement groups like Pierogi (from Ukrainian settlers).^[27] In the far north the Inuit have a distinctive Inuit cuisine.^[28][29]

Immigrant communities, from Chinese Canadians and Italian Canadians in earlier waves to South Asian Canadians, Middle Eastern Canadians, and others in the late 20th century, all came to Canada to prosper. They brought their distinctive flavors, ingredients, and cooking techniques. They often fused them with local products making Chinese distinctive ginger beef or sushi pizza) in ethnic restaurants across urban centers.^[30]

American cuisine consists of the cooking style and traditional dishes prepared in the United States, an especially diverse culture in a large country with a long history of immigration. It principally derives from a mixing of European cuisine, Native American and Alaskan cuisine, and African American cuisine, known as soul food.^[31] The Northeast, Midwest, Mid-Atlantic, South, West, Southwest, and insular areas all have distinctive elements, reflecting local food resources, local demographics, and local innovation. These developments have also given some states and cities distinctive elements. Proximity and territorial expansion has also generated substantial influence from Latin American cuisine, including new forms like Tex-Mex and New Mexican cuisine. Modern mass media and global immigration have brought influences from many other cultures, and some elements of American food culture have become global exports. Local ethnic and religious traditions include Hawaiian cuisine; Cajun; Louisiana Creole; Pennsylvania Dutch; Mormon; Chinese American; German American; Italian American; Greek American; Jewish American; and Mexican American cuisines.^[32][33][34]

American cooking dates back to the traditions of the Native Americans, whose diet included a mix of farmed and hunted food, and varied widely across the continent. The Colonial period created a mix of new world and Old World cookery, and brought with it new crops and livestock from Britain and France. During the early 19th century, cooking was based mostly on what the agrarian population could grow, hunt, or raise on their land. With an increasing influx of immigrants, and a move to city life, American food further diversified in the later part of the 19th century. The 20th century saw a revolution in cooking as new technologies, the World Wars, a scientific understanding of food, and continued immigration combined to create a wide range of new foods. This has allowed for the current rich diversity in food dishes throughout the country The automobile enabled the drive-in and drive-through restaurants..^[35][36]

American cuisine includes milkshakes, barbecue, and a wide range of fried foods. Many quintessential American dishes are unique takes on food originally from other culinary traditions, including pizza, hot dogs, and Tex-Mex. Regional cooking includes a range of fish dishes in the coastal states, gumbo, and cheesesteak. Turkey is a staple at annual Thanksgiving and Christmas dinners. Modern American cuisine includes a focus on fast food, as well as take-out food, which is often ethnic. There is also a vibrant culinary scene surrounding televised celebrity chefs, social media, and foodie culture.^[37]

Soul food is the ethnic cuisine of African Americans.^[38][39] Originating in the American South from the cuisines of enslaved Africans transported from Africa through the Atlantic slave trade, soul food is closely associated with the cuisine of the Southern United States.^[40] Soul food uses cooking techniques and ingredients from West African, Central African, Western European, and Indigenous cuisine of the Americas.^[41]

The concept evolved from describing the food of slaves in the South, to being taken up as a source of pride in the African American community across the country.^[42][43]

Soul food historian Adrian Miller said the difference between soul food and Southern food is that soul food is intensely seasoned and uses a variety of meats to add flavor to food and adds a variety of spicy and savory sauces. These spicy and savory sauces add robust flavor. This method of preparation was influenced by West African cuisine where West Africans create sauces to add flavor and spice to their food. Black Americans also add sugar to make cornbread, while "white southerners say when you put sugar in corn bread, it becomes cake".^[44]

• List of ancient dishes
• List of historical cuisines
• List of food and beverage museums
• Timeline of food
• History of agriculture
  • History of wheat
  • Pig farming
• Nutritional science#History
• Food studies
  • Columbian exchange, movement of plants and animals to/from Americas in 1500s
    • Early impact of Mesoamerican goods in Iberian society
  • History of bread
  • Pig

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• Malcolmson, Robert, and Stephanos Mastoris. The English pig: A history (A&C Black, 1998)
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• Cummings, Richard Osborn. The American and his Food (1940) online
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• Dirks, Robert. Food in the gilded age: What ordinary Americans ate (Bloomsbury, 2016) online.
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• Liu, Haiming. From Canton Restaurant to Panda Express: A History of Chinese Food in the United States (Rutgers UP, 2015)

• Lobel, Cindy R. Urban Appetites: Food and Culture in Nineteenth-Century New York (U of Chicago Press, 2014).
• Mabli, Peter. Choose to Sit at the Great National Table': American Cuisine and Identity in the Early Republic (Thesis, Drew University, 2019) online.

• Marinaccio, Rocco. "“A seething mass of rottenness”: regulating food and the landscape of modern New York." Food, Culture & Society 22.1 (2019): 9-25.
• Merwin, Ted. Pastrami on Rye: An Overstuffed History of the Jewish Deli (New York UP, 2015)

• Pillsbury, Richard. No foreign food: The American diet in time and place (Routledge, 2018). online
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• Santlofer, Joy. Food city: Four centuries of food-making in New York (WW Norton, 2016). online
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• Shapiro, Laura. Perfection Salad: Women and Cooking at the Turn of the Century (Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1986), USA, 1890–1920
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• Veit, Helen Zoe, ed. Food in the Civil War Era: The North (Michigan State UP, 2014)
• Veit, Helen Zoe. Modern Food, Moral Food: Self-Control, Science, and the Rise of Modern American Eating in the Early Twentieth Century (U of North Carolina Press, 2013)
• Wallach, Jennifer Jensen. How America Eats: A social history of U.S. food and culture (2014) online

• Wilk, Daniel Levinson. "Recent Works in the History of American Food." American Quarterly 70.1 (2018): 113-121. online

• Williams, Elizabeth M. New Orleans: A Food Biography (AltaMira Press, 2012).

• Eisnach, Dwight, and Herbert C. Covey, eds. What the Slaves Ate: Recollections of African American Foods and Foodways from the Slave Narratives (Greenwood, 2009).
• Garth, Hanna, and Ashanté M. Reese. Black Food Matters: Racial Justice in the Wake of Food Justice (U of Minnesota, 2020.)
• Harris, Jessica B. High on the Hog: A culinary journey from Africa to America. (Bloomsbury, 2010) African American food history..
• Opie, Frederick Douglass. Hogs and hominy: Soul food from Africa to America (Columbia University Press 2008).
• Paige, Howard. Aspects of Afro-American cookery (1987)
• Poe, Tracy N. "The origins of soul food in Black urban identity: Chicago, 1914-1947" American Studies International. 37#1 (1999). pp.4-33.
• Psyche, A. Williams-Forson. Building Houses out of Chicken Legs: Black Women, Food, and Power (U of North Carolina Press, 2006)
• Twitty, Michael W., and Stephen Crotts. The Cooking Gene: A Journey Through African American Culinary History in the Old South (2018)
• Witt, Doris. Black Hunger: Food and the Politics of U.S. Identity (Oxford, 1999)

• Gal, Andrea M. "Grassroots Consumption: Ontario Farm Families’ Consumption Practices, 1900-45." (2016). online thesis

• Iacovetta, Franca et al. eds. Edible histories, cultural politics: towards a Canadian food history (U of Toronto Press, 2012) online
• Knight, William. "Preaching 'the Gospel of Clean Fish': Rational Consumption at the Canadian National Exhibition, 1913–1919." Histoire sociale/Social History 54.111 (2021): 311-334. online
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• Strikwerda, Eric. " 'Canada Needs All Our Food-Power:' Industrial Nutrition in Canada, 1941–1948." Labour 83 (2019): 9-41. online

• Veeman, Terrence, and Michele Veeman. "Agriculture and Food" The encyclopedia of Canada (2015) online

• Petits Propos Culinaires, first journal in the field
• Food and Foodways: Explorations in the History and Culture of Human Nourishment
• Food, Culture and Society: An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research
• Food & History: multilingual scientific journal about the history and culture of food published by the (IEHCA)