Circassian Revolution

The Revolution in Circassia^[1] refers to various social changes in 17th-19th century Circassia mainly motivated by religion,^[1][2] which led to eradication or weakening of social classes and the establishment of a council-based, "democratic" social structure in the most populous regions.^[1][2] This was achieved by reforms by Circassian leaders,^[2] as well as a series of violent revolts by Circassian peasants (Adyghe: Фэкъолӏ зау, lit. 'The Peasant War').^[3][4]

The Treaty of Zuhab, which concluded wars between the Ottomans and Safavid Persians in 1639, had a profound effect on the Circassian social structure. The treaty placed the Western Caucasus under Ottoman influence, this allowed the Crimean Khanate to consolidate Islam in the region, which became an ideological tool for the upcoming social changes.^[1]

Around the middle of the 17th century, a "fierce struggle" broke out between the free men and the nobles. According to accounts by James Stanislaus Bell, this conflict resulted in the power of the nobles being "effectually broken".^[1][5] In the 1630s, Abzakh peasants, supported by fugitive serfs from the Bzhеdug, Chemguy, and other princely domains, launched a revolt against the Bzhedug princes.^[2] By approximately 1639, the uprising succeeded in expelling the Bzhedug feudal lords from the upper and middle basin of the Psekups River. Contemporary sources noted that during this period the tribes "destroyed their nobility".^[2]

In the 18th century, Aslan-Girey, the prince of the Hatuqway Principality, decreed on his deathbed that every serf in the Hatuqway Principality be freed according to Islamic obligations, and slavery should be abolished.^[4]

In 1770, a major class war erupted within the Abzakh tribe.^[4] On 29 June 1796, the Battle of Bziyuk took place between the Shapsug and Abzakh people's militias and the Russian-supported Bzhedug nobility as the result of the rising tensions.^[2] The conflict began because the weakened nobles turned to Russian military support to protect their land and political privileges. Bzhedug forces led by Prince Batjeriy Hadjemuqo, together with a Russian unit commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Yeremeyev, fought the Shapsug and Abzakh militias in Western Bzhedugia (Khimishiy). The Russian-Bzhedug side had artillery and won the battle, but Prince Batjeriy Hadjemuqo was killed during the battle. Despite the victory, the death of one of the most prominent noble figures weakened the power of the feudal nobility in Western Circassia.^[6]

The most significant phase of the conflict, termed the "Democratic Coup," took place in the late 18th century. This period saw the rise of the "free Circassians" (Shapsugs, Natukhaj, and Abzakh) as a distinct political force, opposing the "aristocratic" tribes such as Bzhedug or Chemguy. The organizational basis for the uprising was the institution of "sworn brotherhoods". These unions of unrelated families bound by oath consolidated the power of the peasantry, allowing them to challenge the privileges of the nobility.^[2]

Leaders were no longer hereditary but were elected by an open vote involving all adult members of a clan.Legislative councils were elected to enact rules regulating everyday life. Special councils possessed the authority to censor leaders for unsatisfactory performance and divest them of their powers. This unique experiment in pluralism distinguished the Western "democratic" tribes from the "aristocratic" tribes.^[4] In the Circassian flag, the twelve golden stars stand for the nine "aristocratic" tribes and the three "democratic" tribes.^[4]

Many of the deposed Circassian aristocrats chose to live in exile in Russia, a migration that occurred roughly during the same period that French aristocrats sought refuge in the Tsarist empire following the French Revolution.^[4]

Influenced by the success of the Abzakh uprising, the common people of the Shapsug tribe overthrew their overlords at the beginning of the 19th century. Unlike the violent conflict in Abzakhia, the Shapsug transition was characterized as a "bloodless coup".^[4] In 1803, a significant congress known as "Pechetnyko-Zefes" was held to establish a new legal framework. The assembly delimited the rights of the nobility and the people. A key outcome was the equalization of the "price of blood": the life of a free peasant was valued equally to that of a noble. Previously, the life of a noble demanded a much higher compensation.^[2]

During the Russo-Turkish War of 1806–1812, a battle took place on 19 October 1807 (or in 1808) between the Abzakh and Russian-backed feudal aristocrats. The reason was the aristocracy's acceptance of Russian protection in order to preserve their property and political privileges. Russian forces under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Yermeyev, together with their allies, the Chemguy prince Bezruqo Bolotoqo and Ademey and Nogai allies, attacked the Abzakh with an army of approximately 12,000 men. During a cavalry charge, Prince Bezruqo was killed by Abzakh infantry, and the battle ended in an Abzakh victory.^[6]

The struggle between the classes continued into the mid-19th century. In 1846, the common people of the Natukhaj and Shapsug tribes carried out a massive confiscation of property from the nobility.^[2]

Following the Foundation of Mozdok in 1763 and the subsequent outbreak of the Russo-Circassian War, the traditional political system of Kabardia, which was based on a confederation of allied princes, proved insufficient to defend the country's independence.^[2] This gave birth to the Sharia movement (Шариатское движение), which had the primary goal of to unifying the fragmented Circassian society against Russian colonial expansion by replacing traditional customary law (adat) with Islamic law (Sharia).^[2]

Supporters of the Sharia movement believed that Kabardian society needed a new ideological foundation. Traditional codes which sanctioned social inequality and political decentralisation could no longer serve this purpose. Instead, the movement turned to the Islamic principle of the "equality of all believers before God" to consolidate society.^[2] In the 1790s, the movement was led by the fugitive Prince Adil-Giray Atazhukin and the Effendi (Islamic scholar) Ishaq Abukov. They opposed the courts established by the Russian administration in 1793, which were based on old traditions and were seen as tools of colonial control.^[2]

On 5 July 1799, General Knorring reported to the Tsar that Atazhukin and nine nobles had sworn an oath on the Qur'an to establish a "Religious Court" to judge national disputes according to Sharia law. Initially, the movement sought to introduce equality between the princes (pshi) and the lower nobles (worq). In 1806, following mass unrest and the failure of Russian military expeditions to fully subdue the region, the movement succeeded in establishing Sharia courts (Mehkeme) in Great and Little Kabardia.^[2]

The key features of this "Spiritual Government" in Kabardia included a criminal law reform, which abolished the traditional system of composition (paying blood money based on rank) for serious crimes. Under Sharia, criminals faced capital or corporal punishment regardless of their social status. In addition, the Mehkeme, an Islamic court consisting of 12 members, including the Grand Prince, 2-3 princes, nobles, a secretary, and a qadi (judge), was established. During this period, Effendi Ishaq Abukov, now a popular leader, led the social Islamisation of Kabardia. Kabardians altered their dress, grew beards, and abandoned the consumption of alcohol and tobacco. In 1822, General Aleksey Yermolov invaded Kabardia, finally crushing the resistance. He abolished the Sharia courts and established the Provisional Kabardian Court, where nobles held power.^[2]

While the movement was suppressed in Kabardia, Sharia began to spread among the Western Circassians in the 1820s, influenced by Turkish emissaries and the earlier events in Kabardia.^[2] In 1822, an assembly known as "Khautsekhyas" led to the adoption of Sharia over adat among the Shapsugs, undermining the power of the nobility.^[2][7]

In western Circassia, the Sharia movement was revitalised by the representatives of Imam Shamil in Circassia: Haji-Muhammad, Suleiman-Efendi, and Muhammad Amin. This new movement came to be known as the Muridism movement. Muhammed Amin (1848–1859) attempted to create a centralised state in Western Circassia based on Sharia, establishing Mehkeme (courts), a standing army, and a tax system.^[2]

During his rule, Muhammad Amin pushed for abolishment of social classes.^[8] The principles of Muridism posed a direct threat to the traditional aristocracy in tribes like the Bzhedugs. The Sharia doctrine undermined the legitimacy of owning serfs and slaves, particularly if those serfs were fellow Muslims.^[2] In 1855, Muhammad Amin forced the Bzhedug nobles to take an oath to renounce their rights. Many princes and nobles were massacred and robbed by the Bzhedug commoners.^[9][10]