Ava–Hanthawaddy War (1408–1418)

Ava–Hanthawaddy War (1408–1418)
Part of the Forty Years' War
Date March 1408 – late 1418 Location Southern Myanmar Western Myanmar Northern Myanmar Result Hanthawaddy and coalition victory Territorial changes Ava loses control of Launggyet Arakan, which becomes a protectorate of Hanthawaddy Ava retains control of its nearer Shan states (Mohnyin, Bhamo, Onbaung, Yatsauk, Nyaungshwe)
Belligerents
Ava Launggyet (to 1408; 1408–1409; 1411–1412)	Hanthawaddy Pegu Launggyet (1408; 1409–1411; from 1412) China and its client states (1412–1415) Hsenwi Maw (Mong Mao)
Commanders and leaders
Minkhaung I Minye Kyawswa † Thihathu Min Nyo Letya Pyanchi † Nawrahta Thado Thray Sithu Baya Gamani Yazathingyan Tarabya Thihapate Sithu Pauk Hla # Letya Zeya Thingyan Sokkate Tho Kyaung Bwa Htaw Hmaing Thettawshay † Nanda Thuriya † Nanda Kyawthu Smin Bayan Upakaung[a] Anawrahta	Razadarit Theiddat  Binnya Dhammaraza Binnya Ran Bassein Binnya Kyan Dala Binnya Set  Byat Za # Dein Mani-Yut Smin Awa Naing Maha Thamun Smin Ye-Thin-Yan † Smin Bayan Upakaung [b] Lagun Ein † Smin Than-Kye Smin Paik-Nye Smin Maw-Khwin  Min Saw Mon Min Khayi Yongle Emperor Hkam Hkai Hpa † Hkam Yawt Hpa Sawbwa of Mawdon Sawbwa of Mawke
Strength
Ava–Pegu Theater[note 1] 1408: 26,000 infantry; 2200 cavalry; 100 elephants 1409–10: 14,000+; 1400; 100[c] 1410: 14,000; 600; 40 1412–13: 12,000+; 600+; 40+ 1414–15: 21,000+; 600+; 80+ 1416: 8000; 400; 30 1417–18: 16,000; 700; 40 Arakan Theater 1408: 300+; ?; ?[c] 1411: 10,000+; 1000+; ~100 1411–12: 8000+; 300+; 30+ 1416: 1 garrison Shan States Theater 1412: 7000; 400; 20[c] 1413–14: 8000; 400; 30 1414–15: ?	Ava–Pegu Theater[note 1] 1408: 8000 infantry; 300 cavalry; 60 elephants 1409–10: 8000+; 400+; 90+[c] 1410: 3+ regiments; 2 flotillas 1412–13: 12,000; 800; 30 (later reduced to 5000; 400; 10) 1414–15: 10,000+; ?; ? 1416: 7000; 500; 30+ 1417–18: ? Arakan Theater 1408: 4000+; ?; 20+[c] 1411: 5000+; 200; 50 1411–12: 5000+; 200; 50 1416: ? Shan States Theater 1412: 20,000+; 2000+; ?[c] 1413–14: ? 1414–15: 4000; 200; 20
Casualties and losses
Total unknown	Total unknown
See Ava–Hanthawaddy War (1408–1410) orders of battle, (1410–1412), (1412–1414), (1414–1415), and (1416–1418) for more information.

The Ava–Hanthawaddy War (1408–1418) (Burmese: အင်းဝ–ဟံသာဝတီ စစ် (၁၄၀၈–၁၄၁၈)) was the third major conflict of the Forty Years' War, fought between Ava and Hanthawaddy Pegu, both located in present-day Myanmar. The decade-long war escalated into a multi-front, multi-sided conflict that also involved China and Siam. Hanthawaddy and China successfully checked Ava's expansion drive.

The casus belli stemmed from Ava's expansion under King Minkhaung I, who after the Ava–Hanthawaddy War (1401–1403) annexed the nearer Shan states and Launggyet Arakan (1404–1406). While the Ming court warned Ava to end its "aggression", King Razadarit of Hanthawaddy feared he was next, and seized Arakan in March 1408. A furious Minkhaung hastily invaded the southern kingdom but his forces were decimated during the punishing rainy season. His subsequent 1409–1410 invasion also failed, leading a dejected Minkhaung to cede command to his eldest son, Crown Prince Minye Kyawswa.

Minye Kyawswa brought a new, flexible strategy, focusing on the Irrawaddy delta rather than the difficult Sittaung front. When his inaugural delta invasion stalled in late 1410, he swiftly redirected his forces to Arakan, capturing the region in March 1411. However, he was soon forced to leave the front due to the imminent Chinese threat—the Yongle Emperor had authorized military action against Ava—which allowed Hanthawaddy to retake Arakan by early 1412.

Both kingdoms were soon forced to fight on multiple fronts. In April 1412, the Chinese vassal Hsenwi invaded Ava's northeast, advancing to Wetwin—just 80 kilometers from Ava (Inwa). Minye Kyawswa successfully repulsed the invasion, besieged Hsenwi throughout the rainy season, and defeated a 20,000-strong Chinese relief army in October. In November, Razadarit opened Ava's southern front to relieve pressure on Hsenwi by laying siege to Prome (Pyay). One month into the siege, Siamese forces opportunistically invaded Hanthawaddy's southernmost districts, forcing Razadarit to lead the majority of his forces to drive them out. This allowed Ava forces to launch a counter-invasion, and occupy the delta by May 1413.

However, Ava's momentum was again stalled as China and its vassals continued to attack Ava's northern districts throughout 1413–1415. In 1413, Minkhaung had to recall Minye Kyawswa to chase Maw (Mong Mao) forces to the Chinese border. In his final invasion, Minye Kyawswa recaptured the entire delta in 1414, but could not breach the formidable defensive line of Dala, Dagon and Syriam, en route to Pegu (Bago). Minkhaung refused to send reinforcements as the Chinese threat remained. The war's climax came during a Hanthawaddy counterattack on 13 March 1415 when Minye Kyawswa fell in action outside Dala.

The war lost its intensity afterwards. China stopped its invasions after 1415. A grief-stricken Minkhaung stopped all military action until Razadarit sent a minor probe in 1416. Minkhaung ordered a final retaliatory campaign in 1417–1418, after which he declared the two kingdoms "even." This resulted in an unofficial peace that held until both rival kings died in 1421. Hanthawaddy had succeeded in maintaining its independence, while Ava had lost Arakan but secured its nearer Shan states. The peace broke down in 1422 when Minkhaung's successor, King Thihathu, intervened in a Pegu succession crisis, starting the Ava–Hanthawaddy War (1422–1423).

This was the third war between Ava and Hanthawaddy Pegu. In the first two wars, each kingdom attempted to exploit the other's succession crisis. In the first war (1385–1391), King Swa Saw Ke of Ava unsuccessfully tried to replace the new king of Hanthawaddy, Razadarit.^[1][2] Conversely, Razadarit attempted to gain the submission of Ava's new king Minkhaung I in the second war (1401–1403).^[3][4]

Minkhaung emerged stronger after the second war. Not only was he able to negotiate a favorable peace treaty with Razadarit^[5][6] but he had also finally gained the support of his vassals. Minkhaung immediately began using his newfound power. Ava went on to take over its neighboring Shan states to the east and the north: Onbaung (1404/05), Yatsauk and Nyaungshwe (1405/06),^[7] and Bhamo and Mohnyin (1406).^[7][8]

Ava's acquisition spree alarmed its neighbors. In August 1406, the Ming court, which considered the Shan states its tributaries, dispatched an embassy to Ava (Inwa), ordering the kingdom to end its "aggression" in the border states.^[8] At Pegu, the concern was far greater. Razadarit had been wary about Ava's potential threat to Pegu since the end of the second war.^[9] According to the Razadarit Ayedawbon chronicle, c. October 1406,^{[note 2]} the king received intelligence that his court deemed credible: Ava planned to invade Launggyet Arakan next, followed by Pegu.^{[10][note 3]}

Pegu's suspicions were seemingly confirmed shortly after. In November 1406, Ava forces led by Minkhaung's eldest son Prince Minye Kyawswa invaded Arakan on the western littoral.^[12] In response, Razadarit and his army rushed to Bassein (Pathein) to closely monitor the events across the Arakan border. Although Ava forces never crossed the Arakan–Hanthawaddy border, the Pegu court was convinced that Pegu was indeed next.^[11]

Razadarit immediately removed the veneer of friendly relations with Ava. He readily gave shelter to King Min Saw Mon (and/or Prince Min Khayi) of Launggyet Arakan.^{[note 4]} A few months later, he welcomed Minkhaung's younger brother Prince Theiddat who had defected for being passed over as crown prince.^[17][18][19] More significantly, he stopped sending the annual shipment of elephants and the annual customs revenues of the port of Bassein as required per the 1403 Treaty of Kawliya.^[18][19] With the treaty now nullified, Pegu prepared for an Ava invasion after the rainy season.^[11]

However, the anticipated invasion never came. When they learned that Ava was busy suppressing a serious rebellion in Bhamo, the Hanthawaddy command deliberated their next steps.^[11] Over the next few months, they concluded that they must act while Ava was preoccupied in the north. They chose to capture Arakan first, which they believed would be easier than confronting Ava's formidable southern defenses.^[14][20] Razadarit did not make the decision lightly, as he was about to start a war against a far more populous kingdom. In January 1408,^{[note 5]} the king prayed solemnly at the main pagoda of Pegu (presumably the Shwemawdaw) before finally authorizing the Arakan campaign.^[14]

Pegu's general plan was to conquer Arakan swiftly by leveraging the popularity of Min Saw Mon. The Hanthawaddy command believed the dethroned king's presence would entice the local populace to join their side. Their battle plan called for capturing Sandoway (Thandwe) first, enlisting more men from southern Arakan, and finally attacking Launggyet in the north.^[21] An expeditionary force was organized, consisting of two divisions (totaling 4000^[14] to 5000^[22] troops), commanded by Smin Paik-Nye and Smin Maw-Khwin.^[21][14] By late February, the expeditionary force and the royal army commanded by Razadarit himself were all massed in Bassein.^[21]

Meanwhile, Ava was oblivious to the impending threat. Its main forces were still in Bhamo,^[23] and had not reinforced its nominal garrisons in Launggyet and Sandoway.^[21]

The invasion began c. early March 1408.^{[note 6]} The Hanthawaddy expeditionary force took Sandoway unopposed. The small Ava garrison there had fled to Launggyet just prior.^[21] The allied forces—Min Saw Mon now commanded a force of his own—then marched to the capital. At Launggyet, the Ava-installed king Anawrahta tried to resist from behind the city walls. Three vanguard forces–led by Smin Sam Lek, Smin Lauk Ni-Ye and Min Saw Mon—quickly breached the defenses, and defeated the Ava garrison inside.^[21] Anawrahta, his queen Saw Pyei Chantha, and 300 household guards, were taken prisoner.^[14][21]

After the campaign, Min Saw Mon was restored to the Launggyet throne.^[14][23] Razadarit immediately recalled most of the expedition force.^{[note 7]} The captured king and queen of Arakan were also brought back. Razadarit had Anawrahta executed, and took his queen, Saw Pyei Chantha, the 16-year-old daughter of Minkhaung, as one of his own.^[23][20][27]

The provocations worked. At Ava, a furious Minkhaung ordered an immediate invasion of Hanthawaddy. His court was aghast. With the rainy season only two months away, the ministers tried to persuade Minkhaung to delay the campaign. But the king insisted on an immediate invasion.^[25][28]

The Ava court hastily drew up a plan. Their first priority was to make peace with China. Minkhaung, who had not responded to the 1406 Chinese mission, finally sent an embassy to Beijing. Its purpose was to reassure the Yongle Emperor about Ava's intentions on their borderlands. The embassy, received on 28 May 1408, succeeded in lowering the tensions with China—at least temporarily.^{[note 8]} Ava also dispatched an embassy to Chiang Mai to persuade the king of Lan Na (present-day northern Thailand) to open a front from Pegu's east.^{[note 9]} However, the embassy veered into Hanthawaddy territory en route, and was arrested. Razadarit released the embassy back to Ava, with Minkhaung's letter to the king of Lan Na unsealed.^[14][20][13]

Ava would thus have to fight Pegu alone. By April, a vanguard army (22,000 troops, 2000 cavalry, 80 elephants), and a smaller army (4000 troops, 200 cavalry and 20 elephants) commanded by Minkhaung himself had been organized.^[25][30] To beat the rains, the Ava command decided to send both armies along the Sittaung river. This was the shortest path to Pegu but it was also much harder to supply. Their plan was to ship supplies via the Irrawaddy river to Prome (Pyay), and then transport them by land (over 200 km by modern roads) through the jungles of the Pegu Yoma range to the front.^[25][31]

Hanthawaddy defenses were ready on both the Irrawaddy delta and Sittaung fronts. They expected invasion forces of around 15,000 infantry, 600 cavalry and 60 elephants. The plan called for ambushing the more numerous Ava troops along the invasion routes, and defending from inside fortified towns.^[32] Dein Mani-Yut would lead the defense of the delta while Razadarit himself would lead the defense of the Sittaung front with his main army (8000 troops, 300 cavalry, 20 elephants), operating out of Fort Thagyin (present-day Shwegyin), about 100 km northeast of Pegu.^[24][25][26] Smin Ye-Thin-Yan guarded the capital.^[33]

In April 1408,^{[note 10]} the Ava vanguard regiments began the invasion at the Sittaung front.^[24][30] A 500-strong vanguard regiment led by Lagun Ein promptly ambushed the enemy, inflicting high casualties before being driven back by the more numerous Ava troops.^[34] Spooked by the high losses, Minkhaung paused the invasion for another six days until more troops could arrive.^[35]

The pause allowed the Hanthawaddy command to readjust their plans. Based on Lagun Ein's report that Ava vanguard forces totaled at least 5,000^[36] and perhaps even 10,000,^[37] they now reckoned the enemy strength to be over 20,000 on this front alone.^[38] They assessed that their frontline Thakyin fort probably could not hold out for long. After a contentious debate among his senior staff, Razadarit decided to pull back 70 km southwest to Fort Pankyaw, and called up reinforcements from the delta and Martaban provinces to Pankyaw.^[24][26] He also ordered all the main towns along the invasion route evacuated, and burned down, including the fief of his father-in-law and senior minister Zeik-Bye.^{[note 11]}

The scorched earth policy proved effective. Advancing Ava forces found nothing but scorched towns—12 in total^[41]—en route to Pankyaw. Though still early in the campaign, feeding the large number of troops was already a problem for the Ava command. Even as Ava forces took up their positions outside Pankyaw over five days in late April,^{[note 12]} the troops were already resorting to foraging around the nearby burned out settlements.^[40]

The battle began in early May. Ava forces struggled to reach the two frontline stockades, located on Thayo (သရို့) and Byatlan (ဗြတ်လန်း) streams, that guarded the westerly and easterly approaches to Pankyaw. As they had no experience fighting in the swampy terrains or tidal patterns, the invaders could not overcome 600 patrols men guarding the approaches to the stockades.^[40][43] Ava's small window of opportunity closed in late May when both the rainy season and more Hanthawaddy reinforcements from the delta and Martaban arrived. The Hanthawaddy troops at Pankyaw now totaled just over 10,000.^{[note 13]}

Yet Minkhaung chose not to retreat—a decision that soon proved costly. In the following weeks, Ava's long supply lines—ambitious even in the best scenarios—were repeatedly ambushed by Smin Awa Naing's units. Starving Ava troops were forced to forage farther and farther, and many became victims of yet more Hanthawaddy ambushes.^[36][44] By late July, the situation had grown so dire that Minkhaung finally agreed to negotiate to secure a safe withdrawal. The king sent a delegation to the Hanthawaddy camp asking for terms.^[24][36]

Razadarit was in no mood for negotiations. Justifying that Minkhaung had first broken the 1403 peace treaty, the Hanthawaddy king devised a plan to assassinate Minkhaung at the negotiation table.^[45] But the plan could not be carried out as the Ava delegation became suspicious after Lagun Ein's blunt reply to a routine question.^{[note 14]} Razadarit ordered two more attempts on Minkhaung's life but both failed. The first attempt to ambush Minkhaung near the Ava camp was broken up on a warning by Theiddat who had come along with the Hanthawaddy units. It turned out that Theiddat could not betray his elder brother. Razadarit had Theiddat executed.^[47][48] In a second attempt, a 12-member unit led by Lagun Ein tried to infiltrate the Ava camp but ultimately had to retreat.^{[note 15]}

In August 1408, during the height of the rainy season, Ava forces began their painful withdrawal. Only able-bodied men were allowed to retreat; the wounded and the sick were left behind.^[52] A rearguard army (8,000 troops, 800 cavalry, 80 elephants) led by Sithu of Yamethin stayed behind to ensure a safe withdrawal for the king and his retinue. However, the Hanthawaddy command had anticipated such a move. A Hanthawaddy army pursued the Ava rearguard army, while another army led by Razadarit himself took another route to cut off Minkhaung's escape path.^[51][53][54] Razadarit's army caught up with Minkhaung's army near the frontier—at Maw Lyin,^[54] or Maw Baw.^[52] In the ensuing battle, only the Ava units guarding Minkhaung managed to bring their king to safety. The remaining slower caravan of horses and elephants carrying civilian members, including Queen Shin Mi-Nauk, was captured.^[51][52][54] Likewise, only a small portion of the rearguard army made it back to Ava territory; the majority of its troops, horses and elephants were killed, or captured.^[55]

Following this total victory, Razadarit claimed Shin Mi-Nauk—both Mi-Nauk and her daughter Saw Pyei Chantha were now in his harem. At Ava, Minkhaung remained in a state of shock for weeks while Mi-Nauk's eldest son, Minye Kyawswa "became a fiend".^[56]

Different sources report conflicting events during the following 12 months. The main royal chronicles, which primarily narrate from the Ava side, report no campaigns until late 1409. According to the chronicles, a remorseful Minkhaung admitted to his court that he had acted in anger and haste, and promised that the next Hanthawaddy campaign would be better planned, setting the campaign date a year later, to late 1409. Then in 1409, he ordered conscriptions throughout the kingdom, including from its vassal Shan states, for the Hanthawaddy campaign.^[57][58][59]

However, according to other sources, Ava remained militarily active in Arakan and in the Shan states in 1408–1409. On the western front, the Rakhine Razawin Thit chronicle states that Minkhaung sent an expeditionary force led by the lord of Myinsaing to Arakan, which retook and occupied Launggyet, until Hanthawaddy forces returned and drove them back out again. Ava managed to retain a foothold in Arakan at Nga-khway-thin-daung (ငခွေးသင်းတောင်) for another three years.^[22] (Notably, the Razadarit Ayedawbon, which narrates from the Hanthawaddy side, does not mention anything about any 1408–1409 campaign by Hanthawaddy forces in Arakan.^{[note 16]})

On the northern front, the Hsenwi Yazawin chronicle states that Ava forces twice "invaded" Hsenwi in 1409.^{[note 17]} According to the Chinese Ming records, the sawbwa of Hsenwi complained to the Emperor about Ava. The Ming court investigated the matter, and determined by September 1409 that Ava had not kept its 1408 promise not to interfere in the borderlands. The Yongle Emperor, enjoying a brief respite from the rebellions in Dai Viet, reassured the sawbwa of Hsenwi, and subsequently authorized a punitive expedition against Ava.^[60] The Ming court recognized Razadarit as a Chinese tributary ruler,^[64] although their attempt to bring Maw (Mong Mao), the powerful Shan state between Burmese and Chinese Shan states, to the Chinese side would not be successful until 1411.^[60]

At Ava, Minkhaung was still set on another invasion of the south. In a nod to the developing situation in the north, he did concede to a smaller campaign. Two smaller armies would once again invade via the Toungoo–Sittaung route. The vanguard army (10,000 troops, 1000 cavalry, 80 elephants) was led by Sithu Pauk Hla of Yamethin, and the royal army (4000 troops, 400 cavalry, 20 elephants) was commanded by Minkhaung himself. Just as in 1408, the supplies would be sent via the Irrawaddy and Prome. Minkhaung had assigned his middle son Thihathu to head up the supply operations, and his eldest son Minye Kyawswa to guard the capital.^[65][59]

At Pegu, Razadarit initially doubted the intelligence that Ava planned to invade with a much smaller force via the same route. He questioned his staff as to why Minkhaung, after failing with over 20,000 troops, would try again with half the number.^[66] The Pegu battle plan remained the same: lure the enemy towards Fort Pankyaw, ambush them, and annihilate them at the right time. To that end, additional stockades had been built up around Pankyaw.^[67]

In October 1409,^{[note 18]} the two Ava armies invaded via the Sittaung front. They faced little resistance until they approached the frontline stockades near Fort Pankyaw. Minkhaung's smaller army set up camp near the Byat Lan stockade. Razadarit, who happened to be touring a nearby stockade, learned of the news. Against his staff's advice, he ordered his forces to engage the enemy in an open battle. Three or four days later, the first and only major battle of the campaign ensued in a field outside Arnan, near Byat Lan.^[65][66] As the two armies clashed, the two kings on their respective war elephants came to face to face. Razadarit, riding a smaller elephant, had to retreat, and nearly became cornered by the sawbwa of Onbaung until Byat Za on his elephant intervened to free Razadarit.^[65][61] As more Ava troops arrived on the scene, Hanthawaddy forces withdrew. Both sides had taken heavy casualties.^[61]

After the close call, Razadarit handed the command to Byat Za who reorganized Hanthawaddy defenses to stay behind the walls.^[61] As they did not have enough troops to storm the forts, Ava forces lurked around for another four months before withdrawing c. February/March 1410. Hanthawaddy forces did not pursue the enemy this time.^[65][61][68]

Once back in Ava, Minkhaung was pressed by the court to address the open issues on both fronts. On the northern front, the king, in consultation with Chief Minister Min Yaza, decided to defend the Shan states under Ava's control. In March 1410, he appointed Thado, one of his proteges, sawbwa of Mohnyin to serve as Ava's bulwark in the north.^[65]

The decision for the Hanthawaddy war took much longer. Though Minkhaung realized that he did not have enough manpower to defeat Pegu, he could not bear to end the war either. For weeks, he was at a loss as to what to do until his eldest son Crown Prince Minye Kyawswa asked for the command of the southern front, vowing to hunt down Razadarit like Porisāda, the cannibal king of Buddhist lore.^{[note 19]} Minkhaung ultimately decided to continue the war—albeit on a limited scale. He handed the southern command to his 19-year-old son, giving him 14,000 troops—the same level of troops as in the 1409–1410 campaign—for the next dry season campaign.^[69][70] Given the tenuous situation in the north, only two Shan regiments (from Onbaung and Nyaungshwe) were assigned to the invasion force; the rest were drawn from central and southern vassals.^[71][72]

Given his limited resources, Minye Kyawswa altered Ava's battle plan. Instead of directly attacking the well-defended Pegu capital region via the Sittaung, he decided to invade what he believed was the less defended Irrawaddy delta. He took command of the expedition force that included one army (7,000 troops, 600 cavalry, 40 elephants) and a navy (7000 troops, 7 large war boats, 70 war boats, 20 armored war boats, 20 transport boats, 30 supply boats).^[69][71] The seven large war boats (each about 47 meters in length) carried important members of the ruling elite.^[73]

The Hanthawaddy command was prepared for a delta invasion. Their plan relied on the delta's difficult terrain, which included "nine major tributaries with sizable widths and strong currents" as well as "dozens of large streams", making fast movements, especially east–west ones, practically impossible.^[74] Razadarit assigned his top generals in the key delta cities: Byat Za at Myaungmya, Dein at Bassein, and Smin Than-Kye at Khebaung. The port cities were defended by squadrons of war boats and jingal wall guns.^[69][71][75] The king planned to lead the defense of the Pegu capital region himself.^[69][71]

In late 1410, Ava land and naval forces invaded the delta. The army launched an attack on Khebaung from Tharrawaddy while Minye Kyawswa and the navy bypassed the port. The navy sailed down towards Myaungmya in the southwestern delta,^[69][72] and faced no resistance until it reached Daybathwe, a stockade near Myaungmya. The garrison there put up a fight but the fort was quickly overrun.^[73]

Buoyed by the initial success, Minye Kyawswa ordered a direct naval attack on Myaungmya. The crown prince personally led the initial charge against the Hanthawaddy flotilla guarding the port, and succeeded in creating a gap 10 to 13 meters wide^{[note 20]} in the enemy's riverine defenses. However, enemy boats soon swarmed them, forcing him to retreat, and stranding several troops and war boats, including Minye Kyawswa's own richly decorated war boat, in the tidal swamps.^[69][73] After the close call, the crown prince switched to attacking by land, which also proved to be a slow grind. Ava forces took heavy casualties from Hanthawaddy ambushes en route before reaching the outskirts of the city after several days. Their several attempts to take the city—including sending down fire rafts and Minye Kyawswa charging with 2000 elite Shan troops—all failed. A period of uneasy stalemate ensued.^[69][72]

To break the stalemate, Byat Za sent an embassy, led by his own wife Princess Tala Mi Baik, carrying his letter addressed to the crown prince.^[75][73][76] In the letter, the minister-general in respectful diplomatic language stated that the city was well provisioned to last several years, and that reinforcements from Pegu would soon arrive since Razadarit had just put down a rebellion in Hlaingbwe^{[note 21]} (in present-day Kayin State).^[69][71][70] Byat Za also apologized for his forces' attack on the crown prince's war boat, and returned the ornamental silver plates removed from the captured vessel. The "elite-to-elite negotiation" worked.^[73] Recognizing the threat of Hanthawaddy reinforcements, Minye Kyawswa accepted Byat Za's face-saving offer, and withdrew from Myaungmya.^[75][73][76]

Minye Kyawswa was not ready to retreat empty-handed however. He swung by Bassein, 40 km northwest of Myaungmya. His forces could not get anywhere near the fortified city, whose defenses included numerous jingal wall guns. After several days, he ended the siege, and withdrew towards Khebaung.^[75][73][78] There too, he found his army kept at a distance by the enemy guns. After several more days, c. early 1411,^{[note 22]} the prince acknowledged that a continued siege was futile, and asked his staff for advice on how to salvage the campaign. Governor Sithu of Yamethin argued that the Hanthawaddy provinces were all too well defended, and that they should instead attack in a less defended Arakan in the remaining campaign season. The crown prince agreed with the assessment, and ordered a full withdrawal to their base in Prome (Pyay).^[75][73][78]

Once at Prome, Minye Kyawswa quickly reorganized his forces for the Arakan front. He transferred most of his naval troops to the army,^[69][78] and led the enlarged army to Launggyet. Unlike in the delta, Ava forces found no resistance en route as King Min Saw Mon had not expected an invasion. Launggyet defenses could not stop a three-pronged attack by Ava forces. The king himself barely escaped, and fled to Bengal on a boat. Ava forces quickly marched south, and took Sandoway. Minye Kyawswa appointed Letya and Sokkate as garrison commanders of Launggyet and Sandoway, respectively, and returned home c. March 1411. Back in Ava, Minye Kyawswa was feted by his father for the victorious campaign.^[79][80]

The celebration proved premature. Two Hanthawaddy divisions (5000 troops, 200 cavalry and 50 elephants), commanded by Smin Bya Paik and Smin E-Kaung-Pein, launched a counterattack on Sandoway c. April 1411. After a few days of fighting, they drove out the Ava garrison. Instead of pursuing the enemy to northern Arakan, they frantically rebuilt Sandoway's defenses in anticipation of Ava's counterattack.^[79][80][81]

As expected, Minye Kyawswa rushed back to Sandoway with an army (8000 troops, 300 cavalry, 30 elephants). Upon arrival, he launched several attacks to retake the city before the rains. The city's reinforced fortifications successfully held off the attacks, and extracted heavy enemy casualties. He was now forced to lay siege to the city as the rainy season began.^[82][83] The siege went on for another three months. The Sandoway garrison twice attempted to break the siege but both attempts failed. As the starving city was reaching its breaking point, Commander Bya Paik sent two envoys carrying a letter supposedly sent by Razadarit. The letter described a sizable relief force (4000 troops, 200 cavalry, 50 elephants) marching to relieve the town, and the envoys allowed themselves to be caught by Ava patrols.^[84][85] The desperate stratagem worked. Minye Kyawswa found the letter credible, and assumed even more reinforcements could follow after the rainy season. He decided to withdraw, vowing to return after the rainy season was over.^{[note 23]}

Despite the vow, Minye Kyawswa would never return to Arakan. Back in Ava, he learned that Minkhaung had shifted focus to the northern front for an imminent showdown with Hsenwi and China.^[88] By August 1411, the Ming court had brought Maw (Mong Mao), the major Shan state at the border, to its side, and subsequently authorized its vassal Hsenwi to invade Ava.^[60] For the first time in the war, Minkhaung took the Chinese threat seriously, and prioritized the northern front, and scrapped the seasonal campaigns elsewhere. The Ava command raised a reserve army for the northern front (7000 troops, 300 cavalry, 20 elephants), mainly of northern regiments. This army, commanded by Minye Kyawswa, was stationed in Ava.^[86][89] Ava's southern and western defenses were based out of Prome and Launggyet, respectively.^[90][91]

Despite Ava's fears, its enemies failed to launch any coordinated attacks at the start of the 1411–1412 dry season. Hsenwi was planning a major invasion deep into Ava territory but the actual invasion was still a few months away.^[92][89][90] Likewise, the Hanthawaddy command was initially in a defensive stance. They chose to invade northern Arakan only when no Ava invasions arrived.^[89][82]

In late 1411, Hanthawaddy forces, assisted by local Arakanese militias, laid siege to Launggyet. The Ava garrison held out for months, waiting for relief forces. However, no reinforcements arrived, and the garrison was ultimately defeated.^{[note 24]} Ava commanders Letya and Sokkate managed to escape.^{[note 25]} Letya fell back to Ava's remaining fort at Nga-khway-thin-daung. Hanthawaddy forces pursued him and drove him out, ending the garrison's three-year stint in Arakan.^[22] Min Saw Mon was then restored to the Launggyet throne.^[87][86]

In the meantime, war finally broke out in Ava's northern front. Circa April 1412,^{[note 26]} Hsenwi forces invaded Hsipaw, the Ava vassal state located 120 km southwest of Hsenwi, forcing its sawbwa Tho Kyaung Bwa to flee to Ava. The sawbwa of Hsenwi, Hkam Hkai Hpa,^[93] continued marching down the dirt roads of the Shan Hills towards Ava (Inwa), some 220 km southwest of Hsipaw. In response, Minye Kyawswa left Ava with his northern army to intercept the enemy.^[92][89][90]

The two armies ran into each other at Wetwin, about 80 km away from Ava. The first skirmishes occurred between the respective calvary forces, and the more numerous Ava cavalry defeated the Hsenwi cavalry. When the top Hsenwi commanders—the sawbwa, his son and his son-in-law, on their war elephants—did not retreat, they quickly became targets of Ava elephantry led by Minye Kyawswa himself. In the ensuing battle, the sawbwa was killed, after which most of the remaining Hsenwi forces fled. About 300 Hsenwi troops fell while about 800 troops, 200 horses and six elephants were captured.^[92][89][90]

Ava was now on the offensive. Minye Kyawswa pursued the retreating Hsenwi forces all the way to Hsenwi, about 260 km northeast of Wetwin. Hsenwi forces, now led by the son of the fallen sawbwa,^{[note 27]} called in Chinese military assistance, and shut the gates. When rains arrived in late May, Minye Kyawswa decided to lay siege to an enemy city in the rainy season for the second consecutive year. Hsenwi had stockpiled enough provisions, and its defenders held out for Chinese relief forces.^[92][91]

Ava forces were prepared for the Chinese intervention. Five months into the siege, c. October 1412, a Chinese army (20,000 men and 2000 cavalry) marched through the Sinkhan forest on the approach to the city. Unbeknownst to them, four Ava regiments (4000 men, 300 horses, 20 elephants) waited outside the forest, and ambushed the Chinese as they emerged. Five Chinese commanders, 2000 troops and 1000 horses were taken prisoner.^[91][94]

The siege continued one more month when Minye Kyawswa was recalled to the southern front. Razadarit had invaded towards Prome. In response, Minkhaung marched down to relieve Prome, and ordered Minye Kyawswa to join him in the south.^[92][91]

The Hanthawaddy command began planning for an invasion immediately after the Ava–Hsenwi war began. Their main objective was to divert a large portion of Ava forces to the south. By November, they had raised an army (12,000 troops, 800 cavalry, 30 elephants) in addition to 12 naval flotillas.^[90][92][91] The commander of Ava's southern defenses, Governor Letya Pyanchi of Prome, had anticipated the invasion, and stockpiled provisions for a long siege.^[95]

The invasion began c. 8 November 1412.^{[note 28]} Hanthawaddy land and naval forces, led by Razadarit himself, overran Ava defenses en route to Prome but Prome's jingal guns kept the invaders at bay. To prepare for a long siege, the Hanthawaddy command ordered the construction of a large stockade across the Irrawaddy in Talezi. Surrounded by a deep moat on its three land sides, the riverside stockade was intended to disrupt Ava's riverine operations both into Prome and further south.^[92][81] In response, Minkhaung prepared to march down with an army to relieve Prome, and recalled Minye Kyawswa from Hsenwi.^[92][91]

The campaign's dynamics suddenly changed about a month later. A Siamese army led by Lord of Kamphaeng Phet invaded Hanthawaddy's southernmost districts, and advanced to Ye.^[92][91] Faced with a two-front war, Razadarit carved out an army (5000 troops, 400 cavalry, 10 elephants) for the Prome front. He gave the overall command to his son Prince Binnya Bassein, and appointed experienced deputies, including his son-in-law Smin Upakaung. The king then left for the Ye front with the remainder of his forces. Minkhaung arrived shortly after with a large army (12,000 troops, 600 cavalry, 40 elephants) but the Hanthawaddy forces had already moved across the river to Fort Talezi.^[92][97]

Ava forces now tried to take Talezi. Even after Minye Kyawswa later joined the offensive, Ava troops could not breach the defenses, led by Upakaung, either from the river or land sides. Flummoxed, Minye Kyawswa invited Upakaung ostensibly to negotiate a settlement, offering him a governorship on par with Prome if he would defect. Upakaung refused, declaring his loyalty as a son-in-law of his royal paternal uncle Razadarit.^[98]

The siege continued for months, and the Hanthawaddy garrison's situation grew dire. However, because Razadarit's southern campaign was taking longer than expected, Pegu could only send in a small relief force which was crushed at Tayokmaw, south of Prome.^[98][99] Four months into the siege, in March 1413, as the garrison was on the verge of collapse, Razadarit finally defeated the Siamese, and returned to Pegu. His advisors urged him to replenish his forces, and return to Talezi only after the new year (after 30 March 1413). The king rejected the advice, and ordered his remaining land and naval forces to the Prome front.^[100] While en route to Talezi, his ailing general, Byat Za, met with the king one last time before dying three days later.^[101]

The Hanthawaddy command then ordered a two-pronged attack on Talezi. The navy led the main charge while the army quietly approached the Ava lines guarding the fort. The navy's commander, Lagun Ein riding a long flagship war boat 40 (or 49) meters long, ^{[note 29]} led the charge into the Ava navy guarding the river. While the Hanthawaddy navy was driven back after an intense battle, the Hanthawaddy army broke Ava lines, allowing the garrison to escape to safety. Lagun Ein was mortally wounded, and died later that day. The Ava high command sent his body downriver on a raft with full military honors. Razadarit ordered a full withdrawal the next day.^[104][103]

The Ava navy led by Minye Kyawswa pursued the enemy down the Irrawaddy. They overwhelmed the first Hanthawaddy rearguard flotilla led by Smin Awa Naing near Tayokmaw, sinking 14 Hanthawaddy boats and causing 300 casualties; Awa Naing barely escaped. The following day, the Ava navy defeated a second rearguard flotilla led by Smin Sam Lek near Hsabaga, gaining control of the border area.^[105][106]

Minye Kyawswa proposed an immediate invasion upon Minkhaung's arrival at Hsabaga three days later. The crown prince and Letya Pyanchi argued that Hanthawaddy forces were overspent from fighting their two-front war, and their delta defenses were thinly manned; although the rainy season was less than two months away, Ava forces could take the delta, and perhaps even advance towards Pegu, during this window of opportunity. Minkhaung was skeptical but authorized a limited invasion of the delta.^[105][106]

In April 1413, Ava forces invaded the delta. Because Razadarit had pulled back much of his forces to the Pegu capital region, the invaders faced minimal resistance. They quickly seized the key delta forts of Khebaung and Dala; the Hanthawaddy commander of Dala, Smin Awa Naing, simply evacuated the town.^[107][108] Minye Kyawswa pressed on towards Pegu, capturing Dagon and Syriam in quick succession. However, the rapid advance came to a sudden halt after a failed attack on Hmawbi in which Pyanchi was mortally wounded. Faced with reinforced defenses on the Pegu front, Minye Kyawswa sent his forces to the western delta to capture Myaungmya and Bassein. By May 1413,^{[note 30]} the entire delta was now under Ava control.^[107][108]

Although the rainy season was imminent, Minye Kyawswa pressed on. Against his father's explicit orders, the crown prince reopened the Pegu front. By then, the Hanthawaddy defenses had been reinforced. Three Hanthawaddy regiments led by three sons of Razadarit successfully drove back Minye Kyawswa's cavalry. Separately, another Hanthawaddy army drove out the Ava garrison at Syriam led by Tarabya I of Pakhan. This ended Ava's campaign—for now.^[112][113]

Minye Kyawswa decided to wait out the rainy season, taking over the acting governorship of Prome in July 1413. For their part, the Hanthawaddy command searched for ways to avoid a full-scale invasion especially since their eastern flank remained vulnerable. Their solution was to get Hsenwi to open Ava's northern front as soon as possible. To that end, Razadarit sent an embassy carrying seven viss (11.43 kg) of gold to Hsenwi (via Chiang Mai).^[107][108]

Razadarit's diplomatic efforts paid immediate dividends. As ordered by the Ming court, Hsenwi reopened the northern front during the rainy season. According to the Ming Shilu, Hsenwi forces raided Ava's northern territories, destroying "over 20 cities and stockades".^[114] The sawbwa of Hsenwi presented the captured elephants, horses, and other goods at the Chinese capital in September 1413.^[114] The Burmese royal chronicles confirm that Hsenwi forces raided Ava's territories during the rainy season, and that forces from Maw (Mawdon Mawke; Mong Mao) continued raiding the outskirts of Ava's northernmost garrison at Myedu even after the rains ended.^[115][116]

In response, Minkhaung recalled Minye Kyawswa to handle the northern crisis. The king transferred his middle son Thihathu to the south.^[115][116] Minye Kyawswa's departure from Prome led to the full withdrawal of Ava forces from the delta. At Ava, the crown prince took command of a large army (11 regiments, 8000 troops, 400 horses and 30 elephants) and marched to Myedu. His forces defeated Maw forces at Myedu, chased the enemy to the Chinese border, and returned to Ava with captured men, women, elephants and horses.^[117][118]

On the western Arakan front, Ava reestablished the Nga-khway-thin-daung fort in 1413/14.^{[note 31]}

Following the successful northern campaign, Minye Kyawswa advocated for a full-scale invasion of the south. However, Minkhaung remained cautious, given the unresolved situation in the north. The king allocated a sizable joint land and naval force for the southern campaign though it was less than Minye Kyawswa had sought. The general plan was to attack the western Irrawaddy delta (targeting Khebaung, Bassein, and Myaungmya), and then capture the southeastern delta ports of Dala and Dagon before advancing on Pegu.^[118][119]

Minye Kyawswa served as overall commander-in-chief, leading the main army (8000 men, 200 horses and 80 elephants). His deputy Nawrahta of Salin commanded the navy (13,000 men, 1800 ships of all sizes).^[118][119] Prince Thihathu commanded five marine regiments, charged with safeguarding the supply lines.^[120][121] Separately, a regiment led by Thinkhaya I of Toungoo guarded the Sittaung front though this sector was not part of the planned invasion.^[120][122]

The Hanthawaddy defenses were ready. The Hanthawaddy command had used the year-and-a-half respite to repair and strengthen key fortifications especially at Khebaung, Bassein, Myaungmya and Dala. Bassein and Myaungmya were also defended by naval flotillas.^[123][124] The capital Pegu had stockpiled a year's worth of provisions and supplies.^[125]

Veteran commanders led all key delta ports: Smin Ye-Thin-Yan at Khebaung;^[118][119] Dein Mani-Yut at Bassein and Smin Saw-Htut at Myaungmya. While the defense of the eastern delta was nominally assigned to Razadarit's sons—Prince Binnya Bassein at the border near Hsabaga; and Prince Binnya Dala at Dala—the princes were advised by veteran commanders. On the Sittaung front, Smin Maw-Khwin held command at Fort Sayat.^[120][122]

The invasion began in early October 1414^{[note 32]} with a joint naval and land assault on Fort Khebaung. For five consecutive days, Hanthawaddy troops repulsed repeated attacks, inflicting heavy casualties on the invaders.^[126][81] A second attack, launched a few days later, also failed. Few troops who managed to cross the fort's moat were cut down while scaling the walls; the attack was called off after three hours.^{[note 33]} A furious Minye Kyawswa ordered another attack the next day, declaring that anyone who failed to charge would be executed. He then personally led the assault on his favorite war elephant, Nga Chit Khaing, along with his elite regiment of 800 men. The tactic succeeded. Despite heavy casualties, Ava forces breached the gates. The fort fell, and Commander Ye-Thin-Yan died in action.^[126][128]

The relatively quick fall of Khebaung shocked Razadarit. The king immediately dispatched an army led by Dein and his eldest son Binnya Dhammaraza to retake the fort. He also ordered Smin Maw-Khwin at Fort Sayat to attack Toungoo. But neither attack was successful. Maw-Khwin's foray into Toungoo was quickly stopped at the border by Thinkhaya; Maw-Khwin was captured, and his deputy Saw-Paik was killed.^[120] (The Razadarit Ayedawbon chronicle reports a battle at Pannin inside Hanthawaddy territory in which Hanthawaddy war boats attacked an Ava camp on the banks on the Sittaung but were sunk by concealed underwater stakes.^[129])

The Hanthawaddy attempt to retake Khebaung never fully materialized. After observing the strong Ava defenses, the Hanthawaddy command chose instead to blockade the fort by driving stakes into the river south of the fort. They resorted to disrupting Ava supply lines along the river at Henzada (Hinthada).^[129]

Meanwhile, Minye Kyawswa advanced with his vanguard forces to Panko. However, he was forced to delay his attack due to Hanthawaddy disruption of Ava supply lines. Over the next few days, Ava forces led by Prince Thihathu and Hanthawaddy forces led by Prince Binnya Bassein fought for control of the riverine routes. Ava naval squadrons suffered great losses, including a squadron commander, the lord of Mindon.^[120][129] Eventually sufficient troops and supplies reached the Ava frontlines, allowing Minye Kyawswa to launch a joint land and naval attack on the fort.^[120][122] Panko's flotilla defended the port until its commander Smin Bayan (né Upakaung) was captured. The fort fell shortly after.^[130][121]

Ava forces fanned out to Bassein and Myaungmya. However, the invaders were already at reduced strength, following substantial casualties. After inspecting Bassein's formidable defenses, Minye Kyawswa remarked that taking it would be far more costly than Khebaung.^[130] He sent a letter to Governor Dein of Bassein, offering him riches to defect to the Ava side but Dein flatly refused the overture.^[131][132]

Minye Kyawswa decided to personally request more support from his father. He left for Ava with the captured Hanthawaddy commanders, including Smin Bayan, arriving 17 days later. He argued that they should open the Pegu front while maintaining the sieges. Minkhaung refused to authorize any more troops, citing the need to reserve forces for the northern front. After a one-week stay, the crown prince returned empty-handed, arriving five days later near Dala.^[133]

Meanwhile, the Hanthawaddy command too had reassessed the situation. Shortly after Minye Kyawswa left for Ava, c. late October/early November 1414,^{[note 34]} Razadarit summoned his top advisers (including Dein who managed to slip past the porous siege) to Pegu. Their primary concern was that Minye Kyawswa might return with fresh reinforcements, potentially leading to the fall of Pegu itself. In the end, the high command decided to reinforce the defenses of Dala, Dagon, Syriam, and Pegu. More crucially, the king agreed to relocate to Martaban as a precaution.^[134][135] In Martaban, the king strengthened the city's defenses by mobilizing more troops, horses and elephants from all 32 districts of the province.^[136]

The decision soon proved to be a major mistake. News of Razadarit's evacuation alongside Dein's absence from Bassein had a demoralizing effect in the two delta cities under siege. Soon after Minye Kyawswa returned to the front, c. December 1414,^{[note 35]} Bassein surrendered, and Myaungmya followed. With the entire delta under his control, Minye Kyawswa laid siege to Dala, Dagon and Syriam, the gateways to the Pegu province.^[134][135]

It was then that the Chinese finally opened the northern front. The two brothers of Mawdon and Mawke had enlisted a Chinese-backed army (4000 troops, 200 cavalry, 20 elephants).^[137][138] In response, Minkhaung sent an army to reinforce the main fort guarding the invasion route.^{[note 36]} The Chinese-Maw (Mong Mao) army soon arrived, and laid siege to the fort. According to the Burmese chronicles, about one month into the siege, c. January 1415, the two sides agreed to a duel on horseback between their respective champions. The chronicles continue that the Ava champion was the recently captured Hanthawaddy commander Smin Bayan, who had agreed to fight for Ava; and the Chinese army retreated after their champion lost.^{[137][138][140]}

The Chinese invasion froze military activity in the south. Minye Kyawswa maintained the sieges of Dala, Dagon and Syriam but he lacked sufficient troops to capture any of the ports. After the Chinese army withdrew, he wrote to Minkhaung, requesting more troops and supplies. He argued that he could capture Pegu while Razadarit remained in Martaban. But Minkhaung, who remained concerned about the northern front, thought his son "overestimated the chances of success."^[109] He agreed only to send more supplies, and promised to open the Sittaung front.^[127][141]

By then, the Hanthawaddy command had assessed that Minye Kyawswa lacked the strength for a major assault. In late January or early February 1415,^{[note 37]} Razadarit returned to Pegu, and tasked his staff with planning a counterattack to relieve the besieged forts. Since Dala in particular was starving, Razadarit dispatched Commander Emundaya to assure the town's defenders that relief was imminent, and they must hold out for a few more weeks.^{[note 38]}

In February, Thihathu finally opened the Sittaung front. However, his undermanned invasion force (1000 troops, 50 cavalry, 5 elephants) failed to even capture the small garrison at Fort Sayat.^[143][144] The Hanthawaddy command quickly determined that the incursion was merely a feint, and proceeded to finalize their plan to attack Minye Kyawswa on 22 February 1415.^{[note 39]}

The Hanthawaddy counterattack began on 2 March 1415,^{[note 40]} led by Razadarit himself. The Ava command was taken by surprise. Minye Kyawswa learned of the Hanthawaddy army's advance only when it was already near Dala. He ordered his undermanned troops at Dala to withdraw, ending the siege. At Dala, the Hanthawaddy command planned a final showdown with Minye Kyawswa. They assessed that he could be lured into fighting in an open battle where their numerical superiority would be decisive. They selected the astrologically chosen date of Wednesday, 13 March 1415 for the battle.^{[145][138][146]}

As expected, Minye Kyawswa also sought an open battle. Upon learning the Hanthawaddy army had come out of Dala on 13 March 1415, he prepared to attack. His senior staff was cautious: Yazathingyan advised against engagement, without better intelligence regarding the enemy's strength. Nawrahta and Tuyin Theinzi supported the assessment. However, Minye Kyawswa dismissed the advice, convinced that a victory in an open battle against Razadarit would lead to the capture of Pegu.^[147][148]

Minye Kyawswa's army (4 regiments, 2500+ troops, 250+ cavalry, 16+ elephants) marched to engage the larger Hanthawaddy force (7 regiments, 6000+ troops). Leading the charge on his favorite war elephant, the crown prince successfully broke through three vanguard Hanthawaddy regiments. However, he was mortally wounded while fighting General Awa Naing's regiment. Two other commanders Thettawshay and Nanda Thuriya, who had accompanied the charge, also fell.^[149] The 24-year-old crown prince was captured and died shortly thereafter. Razadarit honored his adversary by granting him a burial with full royal honors and rites.^{[150][151][152]}

Ava forces, now commanded by Nawrahta and Prince Min Nyo of Kale, withdrew in good order. Over the next few days, all remaining Ava garrisons evacuated the delta.^[153][154] Razadarit appointed new governors: Smin Awa Naing at Bassein, Smin Sam Lek at Myaungmya and Prince Binnya Dala at Dala, and Binnya Set at Dagon.^[153]

Ava forces returned a few weeks later. Upon receiving the news of his son's death (mid-afternoon of 14 March 1415),^{[note 41]} a distraught Minkhaung ordered an immediate invasion. He personally led a sizable naval force to the outskirts of Dala where Minye Kyawswa's remains were buried. Hanthawaddy forces did not interfere. Minkhaung exhumed his son's remains, which were later solemnly dropped into the waters near Twante.^[154] Minkhaung then marched towards Bassein, where Awa Naing, whose forces caused his son's death, was posted. After seeing Bassein was heavily fortified, Minkhaung withdrew three days later.^[155]

After his son's death, Minkhaung was "heartbroken".^[154] He did not launch another campaign in the following dry season. Nevertheless, Hanthawaddy defenses remained vigilant. By c. April 1416, when they were certain Ava would not invade, Razadarit sent a 7000-strong army led by his eldest son, Prince Binnya Dhammaraza, via the Sittaung to probe Toungoo's defenses.^[156][157] Around the same time, Hanthawaddy allies, Arakanese forces, attacked and drove out the last remaining Ava garrison at Nga-khway-thin-daung.^[22]

The Hanthawaddy army's foray ended quickly. They managed to advance close to Toungoo but were driven back by an Ava army (8000 troops, of 400 cavalry, 30 elephants) led by Prince Thihathu. Over Hanthawaddy 300 Hanthawaddy troops were killed, and another 300 men alongside several dozen horses and elephants were captured. The rest fled in disarray.^[156][157]

The successful defense of Toungoo cemented Thihathu's emergence as Minkhaung's heir apparent. When Thihathu returned to Ava, Minkhaung formally appointed him crown prince, and married him to Saw Min Hla, Minye Kyawswa's widow.^[156][157]

Thihathu's first invasion as crown prince came over a year later. The campaign's objective was explicitly retaliatory. Minkhaung authorized only a limited joint land-naval force, consisting of seven regiments (7000 troops, 700 cavalry, 40 elephants), and seven flotillas (9000 troops, 30 war ships, 400 war boats, 500 armored war boats, 700 cargo boats). The Ava battle plan, drafted by Nawrahta of Salin, focused solely on attacking the delta towns, and excluded any grandiose plans to march on Pegu.^[158][159]

The invasion began in late 1417. Thihathu's navy sailed down the Irrawaddy while Nawrahta's army crossed the border from Tharrawaddy. As Hanthawaddy forces remained inside the walls, Ava forces advanced through the delta relatively unscathed, and converged on the heavily fortified towns of Dala, Dagon and Syriam.^[158][159] Hanthawaddy defenses were commanded by Prince Binnya Dala at Dala, Prince Binnya Set at Dagon, and Smin Awa Naing at Syriam.^[158][159]

The Ava advance came to a halt. Their repeated attempts to take the forts failed although they finally broke through at Dagon, capturing Prince Binnya Set. However, they made no further progress, and the sieges of Dala and Syriam continued well into 1418. Then as the rainy season approached, c. May 1418, Prince Min Nyo of Kale's regiment captured the nearby fort of Hmawbi. This prompted Thihathu to hold out for the entire rainy season.^[158][159]

Ava forces benefited from Razadarit's policy of unofficial ceasefire. The Hanthawaddy king ordered no counterattacks during the rains. Nor did he attack when Ava forces finally withdrew after the rainy season. He permitted his son Prince Binnya Set to be taken to Ava.^[158][159]

In Ava, Binnya Set was treated honorably, befitting a prince. To Minkhaung, holding the prince served as repayment for the death of Minye Kyawswa. Minkhaung considered he and Razadarit to be "even", and declared that the decades-long war with Hanthawaddy had ended.^{[158][159][160]}

Although the war ended without a formal peace treaty, the peace held until after both kings died in 1421. Minkhaung spent his final years focusing on domestic affairs, and performing acts of merit.^[152][154] He made no further attempts to recover Arakan, or launch any other campaigns. Ava's northern front remained quiet as Ming China was deeply entrenched in their war against Dai Viet. Chinese-backed campaigns into Ava territory stopped after 1415.^[161] Ava and Hsenwi signed a peace treaty in 1418/19.^{[note 42]}

For his part, Razadarit, having achieved his strategic goal of checking Ava's expansion, did not provoke further conflict. Even after Minkhaung died c. October 1421, he refused his court's suggestion to renew the war, choosing instead to mourn his rival's death.^[162][64] Razadarit himself died suddenly in an accident two months later.^[163]

The peace ended abruptly shortly thereafter. While Thihathu succeeded without incident at Ava, the succession at Pegu was not orderly. Because Razadarit had not named an heir, three of his sons—Binnya Dhammaraza, Binnya Ran and Binnya Kyan—immediately began a struggle for the throne. Prince Binnya Kyan sought Thihathu's help. Thihathu agreed to intervene, starting the Ava–Hanthawaddy War (1422–1423).^{[164][165][166]}

The war is covered extensively in several royal chronicles. The Razadarit Ayedawbon (c. 1560) is the earliest extant chronicle that reports on the war, and its coverage is from the perspective of Hanthawaddy Pegu.^{[note 43]} The chronicle Maha Yazawin (1724) is the first chronicle that covers the war from Ava's perspective.^{[note 44]} The Rakhine Razawin Thit (1931) covers from Launggyet's perspective.^{[note 45]}

While the general narratives of the war's events are similar across the chronicles, they contain important differences in chronology and specific details.

One notable chronological discrepancy is Ava's conquest of Arakan. The main royal chronicles—the Maha Yazawin, Yazawin Thit, Hmannan Yazawin—state that Ava conquered Arakan in 765 ME (1403/04).^{[169][170][171]} However, the Rakhine Razawin Thit provides a later, specific date for the fall of Launggyet: Monday, 5th waning of Nadaw 768 ME (Monday, 29 November 1406).^[12] Thus 765 ME is likely a copying error of 768 ME.^{[note 46]}

Event	Razadarit Ayedawbon (c. 1560)	Maha Yazawin (1724)	Yazawin Thit (1798)	Hmannan Yazawin (1832)	Rakhine Razawin Thit (1931)
Ava conquest of Arakan	no explicit dates mentioned[note 47]	1403/04[note 48]	1403/04[note 49]	1403/04[note 50]	29 November 1406[note 51]
Theiddat's defection and Lapse of the Treaty of Kawliya		c. mid 1407[note 52]	c. mid 1407[note 53]	no date mentioned [after 1406/07 implied][note 54]	not mentioned

The Rakhine Razawin Thit is the only chronicle that mentions a counter invasion by Ava into Arakan in 1408–1409.^[22]

Event	Razadarit Ayedawbon (c. 1560)	Maha Yazawin (1724)	Yazawin Thit (1798)	Hmannan Yazawin (1832)	Rakhine Razawin Thit (1931)
Hanthawaddy invasion of Arakan	March 1408[note 55]	by March 1408[note 56]	March 1408[note 6]	no date mentioned[note 57]	late 1407 or early 1408[note 58]
1st Ava invasion of Hanthawaddy	[1408 implied][note 59]	April–August 1408[note 60]	April–August 1408[note 61]	April–August 1407 [sic][note 62]	not mentioned
Ava invasion of Arakan	not mentioned	not mentioned	not mentioned	not mentioned	late 1408 (or early 1409)[22]
2nd Ava invasion of Hanthawaddy	~5 months in 1409–1410[note 63]	by October 1409–March 1410[note 64]	by October 1409–March 1410[note 65]	by October 1409–March 1410[note 66]	not mentioned

The royal chronicles present varying accounts of Minye Kyawswa's campaigns, both in the sequencing of events and, most critically, in the date of his death. The Razadarit Ayedawbon records only two invasions by Minye Kyawswa whereas the main chronicles list three. Furthermore, many of the Maha Yazawin's dates for this phase of the war are inconsistent with its own narrative.^{[note 68]}

The most notable discrepancy across the chronicles is the date of Minye Kyawswa's death. The Razadarit says Minye Kyawswa died in [Late] Tagu 775 ME (March 1414),^{[note 69]} while the Maha Yazawin places it in [Late] Tagu 778 ME (March 1417),^{[note 70]} likely a copying error of 775 ME.^{[note 46]} The Yazawin Thit changes it to [Late] Tagu 776 ME (March 1415).^{[note 71]} The Hmannan Yazawin accepts the Yazawin Thit's dates from 772 ME (1410/11) onwards except for the battle of Dala.^{[note 72]}

Event	Razadarit Ayedawbon (c. 1560)	Maha Yazawin (1724)	Yazawin Thit (1798)	Hmannan Yazawin (1832)	Rakhine Razawin Thit (1931)
3rd Ava invasion of Hanthawaddy	late 1410[61]	[late 1410 implied][note 73]	late 1410[note 74]	late 1410[note 75]	not mentioned
Battle of Arakan	by early 1411–?[note 76]	by early 1411–1410/11 [sic][note 67]	by early 1411–c. April 1412[note 77]	by early 1411–early 1412[note 78]	1411/12[note 31]
1st Chinese/Hsenwi invasion of Ava (Siege of Hsenwi)	6+ months in 1411/12[note 79]	c. April 1411–November 1411[note 80]	c. April 1412–?[note 81]	c. April 1412–November 1412[note 82]	not mentioned
1st Hanthawaddy invasion of Ava (Siege of Prome & Battle of Talezi)	~6 months in 1411/12 (Siege of Prome)[note 83]	1411/12[note 84]	5 months in 1412/13[note 85]	c. November 1412–December 1412[note 86]
Siamese invasion of Martaban	4 months in 1411/12[note 87]	1411/12[note 88]	4 months in 1412/13[note 89]	c. December 1412–March 1413[note 90]
4th Ava invasion of Hanthawaddy	not mentioned	rainy season [of 1412] [note 91]	c. April 1413–c. October 1413[note 92]	c. April 1413–c. October 1413[note 93]
2nd Chinese/Maw invasion of Ava (Battle of Myedu)	not mentioned	late 1412[note 94]	late 1413[note 95]	late 1413[note 96]
Ava garrison posted in Arakan	not mentioned	not mentioned	not mentioned	not mentioned	1413/14[note 31]
5th Ava invasion of Hanthawaddy	late 1413–after March 1414[note 97]	by October 1415–May 1417[note 98]	by October 1414–May 1415[note 99]	by October 1414–May 1417[note 100]	not mentioned
· Battle of Dala	Saturday, 24 March 1414[note 69]	Sunday, 21 March 1417[note 70]	Wednesday, 13 March 1415[note 71]	Sunday, 21 March 1417[note 72]
3rd Maw/Chinese invasion of Ava	after March 1414[note 101]	late 1415–January 1416[note 102]	late 1414–January 1415[note 103]	late 1414–January 1415[note 104]

The Hmannan is inconsistent: after placing Minye Kyawswa's death in March 1417, the chronicle records the start of the next military campaign in 1416.^{[note 105]} The Rakhine Razawin Thit is the only chronicle that mentions the battle of Nga-khway-thin-daung in 1416/17.^{[note 31]}

Event	Razadarit Ayedawbon (c. 1560)	Maha Yazawin (1724)	Yazawin Thit (1798)	Hmannan Yazawin (1832)	Rakhine Razawin Thit (1931)
2nd Hanthawaddy invasion of Ava (Battle of Toungoo)	not mentioned	1417/18[note 106]	1416/17[note 107]	1416/17[note 105]	not mentioned
Ava driven out of Arakan (Battle of Nga-khway-thin-daung)	not mentioned	not mentioned	not mentioned	not mentioned	1416/17[note 31]
6th Ava invasion of Hanthawaddy	specific date not mentioned but after March 1414[note 108]	late 1418–late 1419[note 109]	late 1417–late 1418[note 110]	late 1417–late 1418[note 111]	not mentioned

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